49. Eretz Israel

New World Order

Ultimately, with the establishment of the United Nations on October 24, 1945, a month after the end of World War II, and replacing the failed experiment of the League of Nations, the Zionists saw the creation of a mechanism through which they would become closer to achieving the world domination they believed they were promised in Bible prophecies of the messianic age. According to Steven Patton, the concepts of state sovereignty, mediation between nations, and diplomacy, all find their origin the Peace of Westphalia of 1848, which provided the basis for international communities like the European Union and the United Nations.[1] As explained by Leo Gross, the Peace of Westphalia of 1648 and the Congress of Vienna of 1815 represented the first attempts to “establish something resembling world unity on the basis of states exercising untrammeled sovereignty over certain territories and subordinated to no earthly authority.”[2]

Understandably, one of the most important first actions of the United Nations was the recognition of the State of Israel, which proclaimed its independence on May 14, 1948, by David Ben-Gurion, the Executive Head of the World Zionist Organization (WZO). Thus, the Zionists, and their interpretation of Jewish identity, based on a rejection of Judaism, in favor of recognizing it as a shared cultural and genetic heritage, a “race,” gained the political foothold on the world stage to illegitimately usurp the right to represent the Jewish people.

As Ben-Gurion stated callously, referring to the Holocaust: “What Zionist propaganda for years could not do, disaster has done overnight.”[3] As explained by award winning Israeli journalist and historian Shabtai Teveth, in his apologetic biography, Ben-Gurion: The Burning Ground, 1886-1948, that in regard to rescue to Jews from the Nazis, Ben-Gurion adhered to a “philosophy of what might be called the beneficial disaster.”[4] In 1928, Ben-Gurion told the Histadrut Executive Committee (HEC) that “in order to start a movement in America, a great disaster or upheaval is needed.”[5] After Hitler came to power, Ben-Gurion maintained it was necessary to “turn a disaster… into a productive force,” and asserted that “distress” could also provide “political leverage,” as “the destruction” would contribute in “expediting our enterprise [and] it is in our interest to use Hitler, [who] has not reduced our strength, for the building of our country.”[6] Ben-Gurion read Mein Kampf, having bought a copy August 1933, and he told the HEC in 1934: “Hitler’s rule endangers the entire Jewish people… Who knows, perhaps just four or five years—if not less—stand between us and that terrible day.” In 1939, Ben-Gurion wrote in Davar, “Our strength is in the lack of choice.” And in 1941, writing to Mapai’s Central Committee, “We have no power… All we have is the Jewish people, beaten, persecuted, diminished, impoverished.” He told the Jewish Agency Executive (JAE): “The harsher the affliction, the greater the strength of Zionism.”[7] According to Teveth:

For nearly two years—from March 1941, when Italy entered the war, until Rommel’s defeat in December 1942—Ben-Gurion was more concerned for the fate of the Yishuv than for that of European Jewry. Ben-Gurion repeatedly stressed that the importance of the Yishuv went far beyond the individual Jews of Palestine. As people they were not more worthy of salvation than the Jews of Poland, and Zionism’s first consideration was not their individual fate. The Yishuv’s importance lay solely in its being “the vanguard in the fulfilment of the hope for the rebirth of the people.” Its destruction would be a greater catastrophe than that of any other community of Jews, for one reason: the Yishuv was a “great and invaluable security, a security for the hope of the Jewish people.”[8]

In 1962, Ben-Gurion, the first Prime Minister of Israel, outlined what would be the consequences of the Holocaust and the ensuing founding of the State of Israel in 1948, the Zionist vision of the fulfillment of Bible prophecy, in light of the current political arrangements in the world:

The image of the world in 1987 as traced in my imagination: The Cold War will be a thing of the past. Internal pressure of the constantly growing intelligentsia in Russia for more freedom and the pressure of the masses for raising their living standards may lead to a gradual democratization of the Soviet Union. On the other hand, the increasing influence of the workers and farmers, and the rising political importance of men of science, may transform the United States into a welfare state with a planned economy.
Western and Eastern Europe will become a federation of autonomous states having a Socialist and democratic regime. With the exception of the USSR as a federated Eurasian state, all other continents will become united in a world alliance, at whose disposal will be an international police force. All armies will be abolished, and there will be no more wars.
In Jerusalem, the United Nations (a truly United Nations) will build a Shrine of the Prophets to serve the federated union of all continents; this will be the seat of the Supreme Court of Mankind, to settle all controversies among the federated continents, as prophesied by Isaiah.[9]

In other words, Ben-Gurion is referring to the “New World Order” that is a fixation of so-called “conspiracy theories” proffered by the “anti-Semites.” By such characterizations, it’s clear that Zionists—by helping the world ignore that they are just one of many movements within the rich and multi-faceted Jewish culture and heritage—aim to absolve themselves of their crimes by claiming that all criticism directed at them represents criticism of the entire meaning of Jewish identify and existence. These tactics are clearly a blatantly dishonest ploy which uses the fear of public humiliation to shield the state of Israel from criticism.

Rescuing the Rebbe

Many of the Zionists and their collaborators who coordinated with the Nazis to rescue Yosef Yitzchak Schneersohn (1880 – 1950) in 1939, were also involved in the founding of the United Nations, which made possible the creation of the State of Israel in 1948. Schneersohn was the sixth Lubavitcher Rebbe, and the son of the Rashab who was treated by Freud. As discovered by Bryan Mark Rigg, also the author of Rescued from the Reich, following Germany’s invasion of Poland in 1939, with the intercession of the US Department of State and with the lobbying of many Jewish leaders, including Justice Louis Brandeis—a known Sabbatean—of the Supreme Court, the United States government used its diplomatic relations to convince the Nazis to rescue Rebbe Schneersohn. During the interwar period, following Bolshevik persecution, the Chabad-Lubavitch movement, under the Yitzchak, was centered in Riga and then in Warsaw. Chabad hired a young Washington lobbyist named Max Rhoade to advocate their cause, emphasizing Schneersohn’s role as the world’s leading Torah scholar with an enormous influence worldwide. On September 22, US Senator Robert Wagner (1877 – 1953) sent a telegram to US Secretary of State Cordell Hull (1871 – 1955), stating, “Prominent New York citizens concerned about whereabouts of Rabbi Yosef Yitzchak Schneersohn, … present location unknown.”[10]

At Harvard in 1925, Rhoade and Joseph Shalam Shubow (1899 – 1969) founded Avukah, the national student Zionist organization. From 1924 to 1931, Shubow was a journalist for the Jewish Telegraphic Agency, but then entered the Jewish Institute of Religion to study under Rabbi Stephen Wise. Upon his ordination in 1933, he was installed as the first rabbi of Temple B’nai Moshe in Brighton, Massachusetts. In June 1934, at a Harvard alumni reunion, Shubow publicly confronted Hitler’s close friend Ernst Hanfstaengl, who had been invited as a guest of honor. Shubow questioned Hanfstaengl as to what he had meant by his statement that the Jewish problem would soon be restored to normal, asking, “Did you mean by extermination?”[11] The executive head of American Chabad, Rabbi Samuel Jacobson, told Rhoade:

I need not emphasize the importance of the work we are doing because I understand that you are fully aware of the great and outstanding role the celebrated Rabbi Schneersohn has in the life of the Jewish people, and thus I am sure that you will please continue your excellent work and help us to bring about the speedy rescue of the Lubavitcher Rabbi.[12]

Oscar Rabinovitz, a lawyer and one of US Chabad’s leaders, who had arranged the Rebbe’s meeting with President Hoover in 1930, asked Brandeis contact Attorney General Benjamin Cohen (1894 – 1983), one of Roosevelt’s close advisers. Cohen headed the National Power Policy Committee and belonged to several influential Jewish interest groups. Cohen, a student of Felix Frankfurter, served as counsel for the American Zionist Movement and attended the 1919 Paris Peace Conference and helped to negotiate the League of Nations mandate for Palestine. Cohen also worked for Brandeis as a law clerk. Cohen was as a member of Roosevelt’s Brain Trust, which in addition to Wagner, also included Brandeis and James Warburg, son of Paul Warburg and a member of the CFR. Wagner was part of a later group that consisted of Harvard colleagues invited by Frankfurter in 1933, including Thomas Corcoran (1900 – 1981), and James M. Landis (1899 – 1964). In 1925, Landis was also a law clerk to Brandeis. From 1934 to 1941, Corcoran was liaison to Henry Morgenthau (1891 – 1967), then economic adviser to Roosevelt, and represented him at board of directors of the Reconstruction Finance Corporation (RFC). Together, Corcoran and Cohen were known as the “Gold Dust Twins” and were on the cover of Time.[13]

Rhoade pressured Brandeis and Cohen, who in turn put pressure on men like Henry Morgenthau. Cohen was aware that US diplomat Robert Pell had attended the Evian conference in 1938 and had made friends with the German diplomat Helmut Wohlthat (1893 – 1982). Hjalmar Schacht brought Wohlthat into the Reich Ministry of Economics and the Prussian Ministry of Economics and Labor in 1934 as a General Consultant. In early 1938, when the Ministry of Economics was reorganized under Walther Funk, Wohlthat was named Ministerial Director for Special Projects in Hermann Göring’s Four-Year Plan, reporting directly to Göring. In that role, Wohlthat negotiated with Roosevelt’s representative, George Rublee (1910 – 1918), about financing and organizing the emigration of Jews from Germany. In 1938, Roosevelt requested Rublee become director of the London-based Inter-Governmental Committee on Political Refugees, which attempted to arrange for the resettlement of German and Austrian Jews prior to the outbreak of World War II. The result was the so-called Rublee-Wohlthat Agreement in February 1939, that would have permitted the emigration of 150,000 Jews, but it was never implemented due to the outbreak of the war in September.[14]

Rublee was also a founding member of the Council on Foreign Relations (CFR). At the same time as the CFR was organizing its War-Peace Study Groups, the Department of State created its own internal structure for postwar planning. In mid-September 1939, after a series of meetings with council leaders, Cordell Hull appointed a special assistant, Leo Pasvolsky (1893 – 1953), to guide government postwar planning. Shortly thereafter, on December 12, Pasvolsky drafted a plan for a new departmental division to study the problems of peace and reconstruction. Then, in late December, the department formed a policy committee named the Advisory Committee on Problems of Foreign Relations, with Undersecretary Sumner Welles (1892 – 1961) as chairman. All members were officers of the State Department except Norman Davis (1878 – 1944), who had served as President Wilson’s chief financial advisor at the Paris Peace Conference in 1919, and had become president of the CFR in 1936. The committee came about after Pasvolsky wrote a memorandum calling for a need to deal with “problems of peace and reconstruction” that would review fundamental principles of a “desirable world order.” The committee came up with tentative ideas about a world organization, reviving some aspects of the League of Nations design.[15] As indicated by G. William Domhoff, the policies discussed in the War-Peace Study Groups in 1940 and 1941 provide the contributed to American post-war monetary policy and the International Monetary Fund (IMF) established in 1945.[16]

Pell became vice-director of the United States supported Intergovernmental Committee on Refugees (ICG), created after the Evian conference, and met several times with Wohlthat. Pell then contacted US Secretary of State Cordell Hull to tell him: “[Cohen]… appealed to me because of the arrangement which I had with Wohlthat last winter. … Wohlthat had assured me that if there was any specific case in which American Jewry was particularly interested, he would do what he could to facilitate a solution.”[17] On October 3, 1939, Pell, authorized by Hull, wrote Raymond Geist (1885 – 1955), the American consul general in Berlin. While in Berlin, Geist cultivated a number of high-level contacts within the Nazi party, including Heinrich Himmler and Reinhard Heydrich.[18] Geist has been credited with helping Jews and anti-Nazis to emigrate from Germany during 1938–1939, including Jews and others who were under imminent threat of deportation to concentration camps. However, between 1933 and 1939, the four US Foreign Service Officers in Germany, including Geist, denied 75% of visa requests by German Jews and filled only 40% of immigration quotas from Germany, in a concerted effort to limit Jewish immigration.[19] Pell wrote to Geist:

Rabbi Joseph Isaac Schneersohn known as Lubavitcher Rebbe, one of the leading Jewish scholars of the world and a Latvian citizen, has been trapped in Warsaw. The most influential Jewish leaders and others in this country, including The Postmaster General, Justice Brandeis and Mr. Benjamin Cohen, have asked our assistance in obtaining permission from the German Military Government of Warsaw for the safe egress of the Rabbi to Riga via Stockholm. While the Department does not wish to intervene in the case of a citizen of a foreign country you might in the course of a conversation with Wohlthat inform him as from me and in view of our previous relationship of the interest in this country in this particular case. Wohlthat, who evidently wishes to maintain contact with the Inter-governmental Committee, might wish to intervene with the military authorities.[20]

Geist finally telegraphed Hull and Pell that he had met Wohlthat, who had ‘‘promised to take the matter up with the competent military authorities.’’[21] According to Winfried Meyer, Göring also knew about the rescue operation.[22] Wohlthat contacted Admiral Wilhelm Canaris, head of the Abwehr, German military intelligence, who although a high-ranking Nazi official, often helped Jews.[23] Canaris recruited Major Ernst Bloch, a decorated German army officer of Jewish descent, who was put in command of a group of Mischlinge (“mixed-breeds”) officers, assigned to locate Schneersohn and escort him safely to freedom. According to Bryan Mark Rigg, author of Rescued From the Reich, Canaris told Bloch that he had been approached by the U.S. government to locate and rescue the head of Lubavitch, Rabbi Yosef Yitzchak Schneersohn. “You’re going to go up to Warsaw and you’re going to find the most ultra-Jewish Rabbi in the world, Rabbi Yoseph Yitzchak Schneersohn, and you’re going to rescue him. You can’t miss him, he looks just like Moses.”[24] They eventually rescued over a dozen Chabad Jews from the Rebbe’s family or who were associated with him.[25] Schneersohn was finally granted diplomatic immunity and given safe passage to go via Berlin to Riga, Latvia and then on to New York City, where he arrived on 19 March 1940.[26]

World Jewish Congress

In 1943, in response to growing recognition of the Holocaust, Henry Morgenthau’s Treasury Department approved the plan of the World Jewish Congress (WJC) to rescue Jews through the use of blocked accounts in Switzerland, but the State Department and the British Foreign Office procrastinated further. In December 1917, the American Jewish Congress (AJC) adopted a resolution calling for the “convening of a World Jewish Congress,” “as soon as peace is declared among the warring nations” in Europe.[27] The AJC was created in 1918 by Rabbi Stephen S. Wise, Felix Frankfurter, U.S. Supreme Court Justice Louis Brandeis, all known Sabbateans. Its leadership overlapped with that of the Zionist Organization of America (ZOA).

Within two years after the revelations of the horrors of the Holocaust, activist of the AJC would play a leading role in the formation of the United Nations adopted the Universal Declaration of Human Rights and the Genocide Convention, which were both intended to protect humanity through international law. According to Carsten Wilke, in “Who’s Afraid of “Jewish universalism,” referring to Adolphe Crémieux’s vision of a messianic world order based on the rule of law:

It is certainly more than a coincidence that the realization of this vision in the form of the United Nations’ Universal Declaration of Human Rights of 1948 was conceived by another French jurist, René Cassin (1887–1976), who happened to be Crémieux’s successor at the presidency of the Alliance israélite universelle.[28]

As reflected in the 1948 adoption of the U.N. Universal Declaration of Human Rights, the idea was intended “to replace the discredited minority rights ideal” with a broadly applicable manifesto. The Minority Treaties are treaties, League of Nations mandates, and unilateral declarations made by countries applying for membership in the League of Nations that conferred basic rights on all the inhabitants of the country without distinction of birth, nationality, language, race or religion. With the decline of League of Nations in the 1930s, the treaties were increasingly considered unenforceable and useless.

In August 1927, sixty-five Jewish leaders from thirteen countries convened in Zurich to try and change those faults. The idea of crafting a declaration of human rights,” explained James Loeffler, “emerged from a peculiarly American Jewish mixture of pride and self-consciousness about political activism.”[29] According to Loeffler, while the role of Zionists is important to understand the emerging debate about human rights, it had little to do with the Holocaust or Nazi ant-Semitism. Rather, Loeffler explains, “The era of international minorities protection had ended. In its place arose a new vision of individual human rights etched ambiguously into the structure of an American-led global order.[30]

The conference was organized by Loe Motzkin, and AJC leaders Julian Mack (1866 – 1943) and Stephen Wise. Mack, a United States circuit judge, was a supporter of the NAACP and the Civil Liberties Union. In 1902, together with Martin Buber, Motzkin founded Berlin’s Jüdischer Verlag (“Jewish Publishing House”).[31] In 1914, Motzkin joined Franz Oppenheimer to create a German Committee for Freeing of Russian Jews, which the German Foreign Ministry supported. Oppenheimer collaborated with Friedrich Naumann, a friend of Max Weber, and a supporter of the Anti-Bolshevik League of Eduard Stadtler.[32] Oppenheimer’s sister Paula was married to Richard Dehmel of the George-Kreis. Motzkin had gone on to establish a Jewish delegation to the Paris Peace Conference in 1919 to represent the interests of Jews across Europe.

The AJC’s first international Conference for the Rights of Jewish Minorities in 1927 included six members of the Polish Sejm (parliament), the Chief Rabbi of Vienna, Simon Dubnow (1860 – 1941) from Berlin, Zionist leader Menachem Ussishkin (1863 – 1941) from Jerusalem and head of the Jewish National Fund, Rabbi Wise from New York, and Maurice L. Perlzweig (1895 – 1985), from London, a British Reform rabbi and founding member of American Jewish Committee (AJC). Ussishkin’s daughter Rachel married Friedrich Simon Bodenheimer, son of Zionist Max Bodenheimer, who founded the Zionist Federation of Germany (ZvFD) and the Jewish National Fund (JNF). The Polish Zionist leader Nahum Sokolow—a friend of Weizmann and one of the authors of the Balfour Declaration—opened the conference with a declaration of purpose: “Our slogan is not fight, but defense,” he announced. “We consider this conference a continuation of the work begun in 1919 when Jewish leaders rendered the historic service of formulating and securing rights not only for Jews but for all minorities whose number is not less than 40,000,000.”[33] By the end of the meeting, the delegates had agreed to create a new international organization to be headquartered in Geneva.[34]

The Jewish rights group slowly took shape beginning later in 1927, with Sokolow as its president and Jacob Robinson (1889 – 1977), as a member of its executive committee. Robinson is known as “one of Europe’s foremost champions of minority rights” and “the ultimate internationalist.”[35] He left Lithuania at the early 1940, and later reached New York, where, in 1941, he established the Institute of Jewish Affairs sponsored by the American and the World Jewish Congress. He headed the Institute for seven years, in the course of which he undertook a number of special assignments as special consultant for Jewish affairs to the U.S. chief of counsel, Robert H. Jackson (1892 – 1954), in the trial of the major war criminals in Nuremberg, and as consultant to the UN Secretariat in the establishment of the Human Rights Commission.

The First Preparatory World Jewish Conference was held in Geneva in August 1932. A preparatory committee was headed by Zionist Nahum Goldmann (1895 – 1982), who was one of the leading advocates of the establishment of an international Jewish representative body. The conference approved plans to set up the new organization in 1934, with headquarters in New York and European offices in Berlin, Germany. After two more preparatory conferences in 1933 and 1934, the First Plenary Assembly, held in Geneva in August 1936, established the World Jewish Congress as a permanent and democratic organization. The WJC chose Paris as its headquarters and also opened a liaison office to the League of Nations in Geneva. The WJC has special consultative status with the United Nations Economic and Social Council. Goldmann attended the Evian Conference, convened by Roosevelt in 1938, as an observer for the WJC.[36]

Bergson Group

By the end of 1943, Roosevelt was also getting intense pressure to act on the issue of Jewish immigration from members of Congress, including Sol Bloom (1870 – 1949), chairman of the House Foreign Affairs Committee, and Emanuel Celler (1888 – 1981), a member of the United States House of Representatives; Jewish organizations, most notably Rabbi Wise and the American Jewish Congress (AJC), and Hillel Kook (1915 – 2001). Known as Peter Bergson, Kook was the son of Rabbi Dov Kook, the younger brother of Abraham Isaac Kook. While studying at the Hebrew University, he became a member of Sohba (“Comradeship”), a group of students who would later become prominent in the Revisionist movement, including David Raziel (1910 – 1941) and Avraham Stern (1907 – 1942). Hillel joined the Haganah militia in 1930, helped found the terrorist Irgun in 1931, and eventually became close friends with Ze’ev Jabotinsky.

As head of the “Bergson Group,” Kook led the Irgun’s efforts in the United States during World War II to promote Zionism and mainly to save the abandoned Jews of Europe during the Holocaust. The Bergson Group was composed of a hard-core cadre of ten Irgun activists from Europe, America and Palestine, including Aryeh Ben-Eliezer, Yitzhak Ben-Ami, Alexander Rafaeli, Shmuel Merlin, and Eri Jabotinsky. Morgenthau and his staff persisted in bypassing State and ultimately confronting Roosevelt in January 1944 with the Report to the Secretary on the Acquiescence of This Government in the Murder of the Jews, which helped convince Roosevelt to approve the creation of the War Refugee Board.

Credited with rescuing tens of thousands of Jews from Nazi-occupied countries, through the efforts of Raoul Wallenberg (1912 – 1945), serving as Sweden’s special envoy in Budapest, and others, the War Refugee Board was the only major civilian effort undertaken by the American government to save the lives of Jews during the Holocaust.[37] Already in April 1942, Soviet Navy Intelligence in Stockholm reported to Moscow about a meeting between the influential Swedish banker Jacob Wallenberg, the brother of Raoul Wallenberg’s cousin once removed, and a prominent German contact, Count Waldemar von Oppenheim (1894 – 1952). Waldemar was related to the Wallenbergs through the marriage of Count Ferdinand Arco-Valley (1893 – 1968), a son of Waldemar’s cousin Emmy von Oppenheim, to Jacob’s sister Gertruda.[38] Count Ferdinand was the brother of Anton Arco-Valley, who murdered Kurt Eisner after being rejected from the Thule Society, and whose cell at Landsberg Hitler took over.[39] Under the Nazi racial laws, Oppenheim’s family bank was Aryanized in 1938 becoming the Pferdmenges & Co. Bank, and in 1941, Waldemar was recruited to the Abwehr to escape further harassment as a “Mischling.”[40]

United Nations

The League of Nations lasted for 26 years, until it was deemed ineffective and replaced by the United Nations in 1946, and situated in New York on land donated by John D. Rockefeller. In 1944, Benjamin Cohen also assisted in the drafting of the 1944 Dumbarton Oaks agreements leading to the establishment of the United Nations. In 1945, Cohen served as the United States’ chief draftsman at the Potsdam Conference. Cordell Hull received the Nobel Peace Prize in 1945 for his role in establishing the United Nations, and was referred to by President Roosevelt as the “Father of the United Nations.”[41] Sol Bloom oversaw Congressional approval of the United Nations was a member of the American delegation at its creation in San Francisco in 1945 and at the Rio Conference of 1947.

Despite being “the brainchild of American policy makers and intellectuals,” the pursuit of human rights involved five Zionist leaders linked with the WJC. On December 15, 1944, American newspapers published the AJC’s “Declaration on Human Rights,” signed by signed by more than “1300 distinguished Americans of all faiths,” including Vice President Henry Wallace, Republican presidential candidate Thomas Dewey, two Supreme Court justices, thirty-seven Catholic and Protestant bishops, and the leaders of the US Chamber of Commerce, the American Federation of Labor, and the NAACP. To achieve world peace, the declaration announced, the forthcoming United Nations must “guarantee for every man, woman and child, of every race and creed and in every country, the fundamental rights of life, liberty and the pursuit of happiness.”[42] However, according to WEB DuBois, who was at the same time a founding member of the NAACP whose board included Jacob Schiff, and a student to anti-Semite Eugen Dühring, “[T]his is a very easily understood Declaration of Jewish Rights.” [43]

The AJC also commissioned a volume titled An International Bill of the Rights of Man, by Polish-born jurist Hersch Zvi Lauterpacht (1897 – 1960), widely regarded as the greatest international lawyer of the twentieth century and the founding father of international human rights law, who crafted influential drafts of the Israeli Declaration of Independence, and the Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR) and the European Convention on Human Rights. Lauterpacht, who coined the term “crimes against humanity,” also advised Zionist leaders on their legal strategies for statehood at the same time that he advised the American prosecutors at Nuremberg.[44] With the failure of the League of Nations, European democracy, and notions of natural moral law, Lauterpacht now claimed that the “ultimate” safeguard for human rights, the “power superior to the supreme power of the State,” was “international law.”[45]

Jacob Robinson was critical of the AJC’s declaration, writing that: “Once more an attempt is being made to disguise Jewish demands under the mask of general ones. This is not only a self-deception but also shows a lack of dignity and self-respect.”[46] Robinson and Jacob Blaustein (1892 – 1970) both disagreed with Lauterpacht’s internationalist vision. Both believed rights meant nothing unless backed by power. For Blaustein, it would be American power, while for Robinson, it was Zionist. Blaustein, the founder of the American Oil Company (AMOCO) and chairman of the AJC, was an ardent supporter of human rights, the rights of Jewish people, and an advocate for multilateralism through the United Nations, serving as a United States delegate to the UN under five U.S. presidents.

The Polish-Jewish lawyer responsible for the word “genocide” and the U.N. Genocide Convention, was Zionist activist Raphael Lemkin (1900 – 1959).[47] Lemkin also worked on the legal team of Robert H. Jackson at the Nuremberg Tribunal. Throughout 1947, Lemkin relied heavily on the intervention of the WJC on his behalf and at other times on the American Jewish Committee (AJC) and the Alliance Israélite Universelle.[48] Maurice L. Perlzweig (1895 – 1985), a British Reform rabbi and founding member of American Jewish Committee (AJC), created the modern international NGO at the League of Nations and the UN. From 1942 he was the WJC representative at the United Nations. Amnesty International founder Peter Benenson (1921 – 2005), a Zionist youth activist who sympathized with Palestinian Arab refugees, a convert to Catholic mysticism, and a lawyer disenchanted with the law.[49]

State of Israel

In 1945, a few weeks after the end of World War II, Winston Churchill advised his own closest Zionist friend, Chaim Weizmann, that as both the Conservative and Labor parties in Britain were hostile to Jewish statehood, the Zionists should enlist American and international political support.[50] Just prior to the creation of the State of Israel, President Harry S. Truman, had been increasingly irritated by lobbying from Zionists, and had issued instructions that he did not want any more meetings with Jewish leaders. B’nai B’rith President Frank Goldman (1890 – 1965) convinced fellow B’nai B’rith member Eddie Jacobson (1891 – 1955), long-time friend and business partner of the president, to appeal to Truman for a favor. Jacobson told Truman, “Your hero is Andrew Jackson. I have a hero too. He’s the greatest Jew alive. I’m talking about Chaim Weizmann. He’s an old man and very sick, and he has traveled thousands of miles to see you. And now you’re putting him off. This isn’t like you, Harry.”[51] Jacobson convinced Truman to meet secretly with Weizmann in a meeting said to have resulted in turning White House support back in favor of partition, and ultimately to de facto recognition of Israeli statehood.[52]

In 1946, at a meeting held between the heads of the Haganah, David Ben-Gurion predicted a confrontation between the Arabs of Palestine and the Arab states. In February 1947, the British proposed that the United Nations consider the future of Palestine and take over relations in the region amid ongoing tension. Zionist lobbying in the United States resulted in an outpouring of Jewish American support in preparation for voting the United Nations Partition Plan for Palestine in 1947, which preceded the Israeli Declaration of Independence. President Truman later noted:

The facts were that not only were there pressure movements around the United Nations unlike anything that had been seen there before, but that the White House, too, was subjected to a constant barrage. I do not think I ever had as much pressure and propaganda aimed at the White House as I had in this instance. The persistence of a few of the extreme Zionist leaders—actuated by political motives and engaging in political threats—disturbed and annoyed me.[53]

The United Nations Special Committee on Palestine (UNSCOP) was created on May 15, 1947, to “make recommendations under article 10 of the Charter, concerning the future government of Palestine.” While the Jewish Agency and the Jewish National Council (JNC) cooperated with UNSCOP in its deliberations, the Arab Higher Committee charged UNSCOP with being pro-Zionist, and decided to boycott it. UNSCOP also met twice with Begin and other commanders from the Irgun. During the hearings, the Haganah’s intelligence branch SHAI conducted an extensive operation to eavesdrop on committee members so as to ensure that Zionist leaders would be better prepared for the hearings.[54] October 2, 1947, seven members of the UNSCOP endorsed a partition plan favored by the Zionist leadership. The United Nations finally adopted a resolution to split Palestine into two independent states: a “Jewish State” and an “Arab State” with Jerusalem, a city with religious significance to many groups, under UN trusteeship, despite opposition from Palestinian Arabs of the region. Palestinians refused to recognize the resolution, leading to violent conflict between the two groups.

On May 14, 1948, the day before the expiration of the British Mandate, Ben-Gurion, the head of the Jewish Agency, declared “the establishment of a Jewish state in Eretz-Israel, to be known as the State of Israel.” The Jewish Agency collaborated with the Jewish National Council (JNC) to set up the Mo’ezet Ha’am (“People’s Council”) and Minhelet Ha’am (“National Administration”) which formed the provisional government of the new state. The following day, the armies of four Arab countries—Egypt, Syria, Transjordan and Iraq—entered what had been British Mandatory Palestine, launching the 1948 Arab–Israeli War. On December 10, 1948, the same Zionists involved in the Declaration of Independence were also involved in the passage of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR), and on December 11, UN General Assembly Resolution 194, that brought Arab-Jewish hostilities to a temporary close.

IDF and Mossad

Concerning the “principle of purity of arms,” Ben-Gurion stressed that: “The end does not justify all means. Our war is based on moral grounds.”[55] According to Avi Shlaim, this condemnation of the use of violence is one of the key features of “the conventional Zionist account or old history” whose “popular-heroic-moralistic version” is “taught in Israeli schools and used extensively in the quest for legitimacy abroad.”[56] Benny Morris adds that “[t]he Israelis’ collective memory of fighters characterized by ‘purity of arms’ is also undermined by the evidence of [the dozen cases] of rapes committed in conquered towns and villages.” According to him, “after the 1948 war, the Israelis tended to hail the “purity of arms” of its militiamen and soldiers to contrast this with Arab barbarism, which on occasion expressed itself in the mutilation of captured Jewish corpses.” According to him, “this reinforced the Israelis’ positive self-image and helped them ‘sell’ the new state abroad and (...) demonized the enemy.”[57]

The declaration of independence had been followed by the establishment of the Israel Defense Forces (IDF), and the process of absorbing all military organizations into the IDF started. An agreement had been signed between Menachem Begin and Yisrael Galili for the absorption of the Irgun into the IDF.[58] The Irgun had fought the in 1947–48 Civil War and its chief Begin was described as “leader of the notorious terrorist organisation” by British government and banned from entering United Kingdom.[59] In November 1948, when Begin visited the US on a campaigning trip, a letter signed by Albert Einstein, Sidney Hook of the CCF, Hannah Arendt, and other prominent Americans and several rabbis was published which described Begin’s Herut party as a terrorist, right-wing organization “closely akin in its organization, methods, political philosophy and social appeal to the Nazi and Fascist parties” and accused his group and the Stern Gang of preaching “racial superiority” and having “inaugurated a reign of terror in the Palestine Jewish community.”[60] Rabbi Stephen Wise denounced the movement as, “Fascism in Yiddish or Hebrew.”[61]

At Begin’s orders, the Irgun in the diaspora formally disbanded on January 12, 1949, with the Irgun’s former Paris headquarters becoming the European bureau of the Herut movement, later led by Yitzhak Shamir (1915 – 2012), a former commander of the Lehi underground. According to Shamir:

There are those who say that to kill [T.G.] Martin [a CID sergeant who had recognised Shamir in a lineup] is terrorism, but to attack an army camp is guerrilla warfare and to bomb civilians is professional warfare. But I think it is the same from the moral point of view. Is it better to drop an atomic bomb on a city than to kill a handful of persons? I don't think so… So it was more efficient and more moral to go for selected targets. In any case, it was the only way we could operate, because we were so small. For us it was not a question of the professional honour of a soldier, it was the question of an idea, an aim that had to be achieved. We were aiming at a political goal. There are many examples of what we did to be found in the Bible—Gideon and Samson, for instance. This had an influence on our thinking. And we also learned from the history of other peoples who fought for their freedom—the Russian and Irish revolutionaries, Giuseppe Garibaldi and Josip Broz Tito.[62]

The Arab–Israeli War led to the establishment of the 1949 cease-fire agreement, with partition of the former Mandatory Palestine between the newborn state of Israel with a Jewish majority, the Arab West Bank annexed by the Jordanian Kingdom and the Arab All-Palestine Protectorate in the Gaza Strip under Egypt. Around 700,000 Palestinian Arabs fled or were expelled from their homes in the area that became Israel, and became refugees in what they refer to as the Nakba (“the catastrophe”). As a result of the war, the State of Israel controlled the area that UN General Assembly Resolution 181 had recommended for the proposed Jewish state, as well as almost 60-percent of the area of Arab state proposed by the 1947 Partition Plan. Israel was admitted as a member of the UN by majority vote on 11 May 1949.

June 1948, after consulting with Reuven Shiloah (1909 – 1959) and Chaim Herzog (1918 – 1997), David Ben-Gurion decided to create three intelligence organizations, which ended up being the three main entities in the Israeli Intelligence Community, along with Aman, the military intelligence arm that supplies information to the Israel Defense Forces (IDF); Shin Bet, responsible for internal intelligence, counter-terror and counter-espionage; and the Mossad, which deals with covert activities outside of Israel. Ben-Gurion kept all of the agencies under his control, and from the beginning, it was kept officially hidden from the Israeli public. In fact, mentioning the name Shin Bet or Mossad in public was prohibited until the 1960s.[63] As Ben-Gurion prevented the legal recognition of the agencies, no law defined its operations. As Rosen Bergman explained:

In other words, Israeli intelligence from the outset occupied a shadow realm, one adjacent to, yet separate from, the country’s democratic institutions. A deep state.
In this shadow realm, “state security” was used to justify a large number of actions and operations that, in the visible world, would have been subject to criminal prosecution and long prison terms. The most notable example was targeted killing. In Israeli law, there is no death penalty, but Ben-Gurion circumvented this by giving himself the authority to order extra-judicial executions.[64]

While also dealing with ex-Nazis, the CIA was establishing relationships with the Zionist leadership in Israel. In May 1951, at the invitation of Jewish organizations, Ben Gurion went on an unofficial trip to the United Sates. He used the opportunity for a secret meeting with General Walter Bedell-Smith, then head of the CIA. Until then, the Americans had rejected every Israeli offer to establish a covert liaison between the two countries, for fear that it would harm their ties with the Arab world. Another reason was the fear that Israel the kibbutzim that were established by immigrants from Eastern Europe were permeated Soviet agents. In the end, Bedell-Smith agreed, on the condition that it would remain an absolute secret, which Ben-Gurion agreed to. Shortly afterwards, Shiloah was sent to Washington to draw up a formal U.S.-Israeli agreement on intelligence cooperation.[65] James Jesus Angleton was assigned to “the Israel desk” as liaison with Israel’s Mossad and Shin Bet agencies.[66] As Wolf Blitzer reported in the Washington Post:

Mr. Angleton, in fact, had a very dramatic impact on his counterparts in Israel in persuading them to take the necessary precautions to make certain that the Soviet Union could not penetrate the Israeli intelligence community He was always suspicious of Soviet operations, and is credited with being the first to recognize the dangers of the Soviet Union’s “disinformation” campaign to subvert the West. Israel learned much from him.[67]

On September 14, 1952, Shiloah retired, leaving the organization in the hands of the 40-year-old Isser Harel (1912 – 2003), who became one the most famous Israeli spymasters, also heading Shin Bet, and becoming chairman of the secret services’ coordinating committee. Harel recruited a large number of former Irgun and Stern Gang members, including Yitzhak Shamir, the future prime minister. After the establishment of the Israeli state, Shamir served in the Mossad between 1955 and 1965 and as a Knesset member. Under Harel, Shamir became Mossad’s chief of European operations, a position he held for ten years. Harel became one of Israel’s most powerful figures, heading Mossad and Shin Bet and becoming chairman of the secret services’ coordinating committee. In 1969, Shamir joined Begin’s Herut party.

Harel continued to pursue Shiloah’s dream of a “peripheral alliance” between Israel and potential non-Arab allies in the Middle East. In 1957, he became friends with the first head of Iran’s notorious intelligence agency, Savak, and later prime minister, Taimur Bakhtiar. A year later, he formed the Trident network with Savak and Turkey’s National Security Services as “a dam to stop the Nasser-Soviet flood.” He also armed and trained Iraqi Kurds, and built bases and airfields in Turkey and Ethiopia, under the cover of the fictitious CIA-funded Reynolds Concrete Company.[68]

Harel personally commanded some of Mossad’s most famous operations, the abduction from Argentina of Adolf Eichmann in 1960, who was subsequently found guilty of war crimes in a widely publicized trial in Jerusalem, where he was executed by hanging in 1962. As Polkehn noted, given the extent of the collaboration between the Zionists and the Nazis, “one reason why the Israeli government was so anxious about holding the trial of Eichmann in Israel and in no other place becomes clear; only in Israel could Zionist contacts with the Nazis be kept out of public view.”[69] Advancing the narrative, Hannah Arendt would later write Eichmann in Jerusalem in 1963. Arendt’s subtitle famously introduced the phrase “the banality of evil.” In part, the phrase refers to Eichmann’s deportment at the trial as he displayed neither guilt for his actions nor hatred for those trying him, claiming he bore no responsibility because he was simply “doing his job.”

Knesset

The Rothschilds also played a significant part in the funding of Israel’s governmental infrastructure. Baron Edmond James de Rothschild is known in Israel simply as “the Baron Rothschild” or “the Benefactor,” for the large donations and significant support he lent to the Zionist movement during its early years, which helped lead to the establishment of the State of Israel. In Tel Aviv, the Rothschild Boulevard is named after him, as are a number of localities throughout Israel which he assisted in founding, including Metulla, Zikhron Ya’akov, Rishon Lezion and Rosh Pina. The main building of the Knesset, the state legislature, completed in 1966, was financed by his son, James de Rothschild, as a gift to the State of Israel. James married Dorothy Mathilde Pinto, a close friend of Chaim Weizmann. Dorothy was the first chairperson of the Yad Hanadiv (“The Rothschild Foundation”) who donated the building for the Supreme Court of Israel, which features a Masonic-inspired pyramid. The foundation memorializes her husband’s father, Edmond James de Rothschild.

Yad Hanadiv was chaired by Jacob Rothschild, 4th Baron Rothschild (1936 – 2024), a close friend of David Rockefeller. Jacob was the son of eldest son of Victor Rothschild, 3rd Baron Rothschild (1910 – 1990), whose mother, Rózsika Rothschild, was the one who drove and created the relationship between Weizmann and the Rothschilds, having introduced his cause to her husband Charles Rothschild and his brother Walter, to whom the Balfour Declaration was dedicated.[70] Victor joined the Cambridge Apostles, where he became friends with Guy Burgess, Anthony Blunt and Kim Philby, members of the Cambridge Spy Ring. During World War II, Victor was recruited to MI5. Anthony Blunt was the son of Wilfred Scawen Blunt, the British intelligence handler of Jamal ud din al Afghani. When Anthony Blunt was unmasked as a Soviet agent in 1964, Victor was questioned by Special Branch, but was cleared of any wrong-doing, and continued working on projects for the British government. Victor became a senior executive with Royal Dutch Shell and N.M. Rothschild & Sons, and an advisor to the Edward Heath and Margaret Thatcher governments of the UK.

In Who Paid the Piper?, Frances Stonor Saunders alleges that Victor, as the principal conduit for MI6, channeled funds to Encounter, the magazine of the CIA front, the Congress for Cultural Freedom (CCF). Jacob Rothschild was educated at Eton College and then at Christ Church, Oxford, where he was tutored by British historian Hugh Trevor-Roper, a founding member of the CCF.[71] In 1945, Trevor-Roper was ordered by British counter-intelligence to investigate the circumstances of Hitler’s death, and to refute the Soviet propaganda that Hitler was alive and living in the West. The filmmakers, Noam Shalev and Pablo Weschler, makers of the documentary film Revealed: Hitler in Argentina, believe that Trevor-Roper’s investigation was rushed and “unprofessional.” Trevor-Roper was also the author of an article published in the February 1960 issue of Encounter, titled “Three Foreigners and the Philosophy of the English Revolution,” about the influence of the Hartlib Circle, the circle of Rosicrucians who supported the missions of Menessah ben Israel and Shabbetai Zevi.

In 1961, Rothschild married Serena Mary Dunn, the paternal granddaughter of the Canadian financier Sir James Dunn, and the maternal granddaughter of James St Clair-Erskine, 5th Earl of Rosslyn (1869 – 1939), whose earldom included the famous Rosslyn Chapel, and whose family were long-standing Grand Masters of Scottish Rite Freemasonry. James was the son of Robert St Clair-Erskine, 4th Earl of Rosslyn, who was Grand Master of Scotland.[72] James’ wife, Blanche Adeliza FitzRoy, was described as “one of the last survivors of the great Victorian hostesses” and personally knew many of the most famous people of the Victorian era, including Benjamin Disraeli and William Gladstone.[73]

Likud

On June 5, 1967, after a prolonged attrition war between Israel and Egypt, the Six-Day War broke out between Israel and its Arab neighbors. After six days of war, Israel captured Palestinian Arab territories of the West Bank, East Jerusalem, Gaza, and the Sinai Peninsula, as well as the Syrian territory of Golan Heights. Israeli settlements or colonies are civilian communities where Israeli citizens live, almost exclusively of Jewish ethnicity, built on lands occupied by Israel since the Six-Day War. As early as September 1967, Israeli settlement policy was progressively encouraged by the Labor government of Levi Eshkol. The basis for Israeli settlement in the West Bank became the Allon Plan, named after its inventor Yigal Allon, a politician and general in the IDF. It implied Israeli annexation of major parts of the Israeli-occupied territories, especially East Jerusalem, Gush Etzion and the Jordan Valley. The settlement policy of the government of Yitzhak Rabin was also derived from the Allon Plan.

As noted by Yotam Berger, writing for Haaretz, “It has long been an open secret that the settlement enterprise was launched under false pretenses, involving the expropriation of Palestinian land for ostensibly military purposes when the true intent was to build civilian settlements, which is a violation of international law.” In minutes of meeting in then-Defense Minister Moshe Dayan’s office, top Israeli officials discussed such a plan in building the settlement of Kiryat Arba, next to Hebron. Many settlements were established by Nahal, a paramilitary program of the IDF, as military outposts and later expanded and populated with civilian inhabitants. The method was an open secret in Israel throughout the 1970s, but publication of the information was suppressed by the military censor.[74] In the 1970s, Israel’s methods also included requisitioning for ostensibly military purposes and spraying of land with poison.[75]

“For the Likud,” explained Yossi Klein Halevi in the New York Times, “the settlers are an extension of itself.”[76] The Likud (“The Consolidation”) was founded in 1973 by Begin and Ariel Sharon in an alliance with several right-wing parties. Sharon, an Israeli general who Yitzhak Rabin called Sharon “the greatest field commander in our history,” had been instrumental in the 1953 Qibya massacre, as well as in the 1956 Suez Crisis, the Six-Day War of 1967, the War of Attrition, and the Yom-Kippur War of 1973. Although many Israelis revere Sharon as a war hero and statesman, Palestinians and Human Rights Watch have criticized him as a war criminal.[77] Likud’s landslide victory in the 1977 elections was a major turning point in the country’s political history, as Begin was able to form a government with the support of the religious parties, consigning the left-wing to opposition for the first time since independence. Begin signed the 1978 Camp David Accords and the 1979 Egypt–Israel peace treaty. In the 1981 election, the Likud won 48 seats, but formed a narrower government than in 1977.

The Likud government of Menahem Begin, from 1977, was more supportive to settlement in other parts of the West Bank, by organizations like Gush Emunim and the Jewish Agency/ World Zionist Organization (WZO), and intensified the settlement activities. Since 1967, government-funded settlement projects in the West Bank were implemented by the WZO.[78] Likud declared in a government statement that the entire historic Land of Israel is the inalienable heritage of the Jewish people and that no part of the West Bank should be handed over to foreign rule.[79] In the same year, Ariel Sharon declared that there was a plan to settle two million Jews in the West Bank by 2000. The government abrogated the prohibition from purchasing occupied land by Israelis; the “Drobles Plan,” WZO a plan for large-scale settlement in the West Bank meant to prevent a Palestinian state under the pretext of security became the framework for its policy.[80]

During the last decade of Yosef Yitzchak Schneersohn’s life, from 1940 to 1950, after he had been rescued from the Nazis with the help of Nazi general Canaris, he settled in the Crown Heights section of Brooklyn in New York City. Working with the government and the contacts Schneersohn had with the US State Department, Chabad was able to save his son-in-law Menachem Mendel Schneersohn (1902 – 1994), Russian Empire-born, American Chabad-Lubavitcher Jewish rabbi known to many as “the Rebbe” from Vichy France in 1941 before the borders were closed down.[81] Between 1984 and 1988, Benjamin Netanyahu served as the Israeli ambassador to the United Nations. At the time, Netanyahu formed a relationship during the 1980s with the Rebbe Schneerson, whom he referred to as “the most influential man of our time.”[82]

Netanyahu’s father, Benzion Netanyahu, was a professor of Jewish history at Cornell University, editor of the Encyclopaedia Hebraica, and a senior aide to Ze’ev Jabotinsky. During the war, he and Hillel Kook served as emissaries for the Revisionist Zionist movement in New York. In 1953, he published a biography entitled “Don Isaac Abravanel: Statesman and Philosopher.” Regarding the cause of the Palestinian people, he stated:

That they won’t be able to face [anymore] the war with us, which will include withholding food from Arab cities, preventing education, terminating electrical power and more. They won’t be able to exist, and they will run away from here. But it all depends on the war, and whether we will win the battles with them.[83]

In July 2006, the Menachem Begin Heritage Center organized a conference to mark the 60th anniversary of the King David Hotel bombing. The conference was attended by past and future Prime Minister Benjamin Netanyahu and former members of Irgun. The British Ambassador in Tel Aviv and the Consul-General in Jerusalem protested that a plaque commemorating the bombing stated, “For reasons known only to the British, the hotel was not evacuated.”[84] Netanyahu, then chairman of Likud and Leader of the Opposition in the Knesset, opined that the bombing was a legitimate act with a military target, distinguishing it from an act of terror intended to harm civilians since Irgun sent warnings to evacuate the building. He said, “Imagine that Hamas or Hizbullah would call the military headquarters in Tel Aviv and say, ‘We have placed a bomb and we are asking you to evacuate the area.’ They don’t do that. That is the difference.”[85]

[1] Steven Patton. “The Peace of Westphalia and it Affects on International Relations, Diplomacy and Foreign Policy,” The Histories, Vol. 10, No. 1, Article 5 (2019), p. 91.

[2] Leo Gross. “The Peace of Westphalia, 1648-1948.” The American Journal of International Law, Vol. 42, No. 1 (January, 1948), p. 20.

[3] David Ben-Gurion. Rebirth and Destiny of Israel (New York, 1954), p, 41.

[4] Martin Gilbert. “Israel Was Everywhere.” New York Times (June 21, 1987). Retrieved from https://www.nytimes.com/1987/06/21/books/israel-was-everthing.html?pagewanted=2

[5] Shabtai Teveth. Ben-Gurion: The Burning Ground, 1886-1948 (Houghton Mifflin Harcourt, 1987), p. 850.

[6] Ibid., p. 850.

[7] Ibid.

[8] Ibid., p. 849-854.

[9] David Ben-Gurion. “Ben-gurion Foresees Gradual Democratization of the Soviet Union.” Jewish Telegraphic Agency (January 4, 1962).

[10] Larry S. Price. “The Nazi Who Saved the Lubavitcher Rebbe.” Tablet (July 15, 2019). Retrieved from https://www.tabletmag.com/sections/arts-letters/articles/nazi-saved-lubavitcher-rebbe

[11] S. Farber. “Reproach, Recognition and Respect: Rabbi Joseph B. Soloveitchik and Orthodoxy’s Mid-Century Attitude Toward non-Orthodox Denominations.” American Jewish History, 89:2 (June 2001), pp. 193–214.

[12] Mark Rigg. Rescued from the Reich (New Haven: Yale university press, 2005). p. 97.

[13] Marjorie Hunter. “Benjamin Cohen, New Dealer, Dies.” New York Times (August 17, 1983). Retrieved from https://www.nytimes.com/1983/08/17/obituaries/benjamin-cohen-new-dealer-dies.html

[14] Wohlthat Glossary Entry in Chronologie des Holocaust Retrieved 23 October 2023. https://www.holocaust-chronologie.de/glossar.html?tx_a21glossary_pi1%5Baction%5D=index&tx_a21glossary_pi1%5Bchar%5D=W&tx_a21glossary_pi1%5Bcontroller%5D=Glossary&cHash=bf88b80f19911a4a9cbb74b86c365d96

[15] Rudolf V. A. Janssens. “What Future for Japan?”: U.S. Wartime Planning for the Postwar Era, 1942-1945 (Amsterdam: Rodopi, 1995), p. 10.

[16] G. William Domhoff. “The Council on Foreign Relations and the Grand Area: Case Studies on the Origins of the IMF and the Vietnam War.” Class, Race and Corporate Power, 1: 2 (2014), p. 9.

[17] Bryan Mark Rigg. Rescued from the Reich: How One of Hitler’s Soldiers Saved the Lubavitcher Rebbe (Yale University Press 2006), p. 63.

[18] Rochelle L. Millen. New Perspectives on the Holocaust: A Guide for Teachers and Scholars (NYU Press, 1996). pp. 73.

[19] Barbara L. Bailin. The Influence of Anti-Semitism on United States Immigration Policy With respect to German Jews During 1933–1939 (CUNY Academic Works, 2011), p. 4.

[20] Bryan Mark Rigg. Rescued from the Reich: How One of Hitler’s Soldiers Saved the Lubavitcher Rebbe (Yale University Press 2006), p. 65–66.

[21] Ibid., p. 66.

[22] Larry S. Price. “The Nazi Who Saved the Lubavitcher Rebbe.” Tablet (July 15, 2019). Retrieved from https://www.tabletmag.com/sections/arts-letters/articles/nazi-saved-lubavitcher-rebbe

[23] Rigg. Rescued from the Reich.

[24] Larry S. Price. “The Nazi Who Saved the Lubavitcher Rebbe.” Tablet (July 15, 2019). Retrieved from https://www.tabletmag.com/sections/arts-letters/articles/nazi-saved-lubavitcher-rebbe

[25] Ibid.

[26] R. Altein, E. Zaklikofsky & I. Jacobson. “Out of the Inferno: The Efforts That Led to the Rescue of Rabbi Yosef Yitzchak Schneersohn of Lubavitch from War Torn Europe in 1939–40.” Merkos L'Inyonei Chinuch. p. 160.

[27] World Jewish Congress, Unity in Dispersion – A History of the World Jewish Congress (New York 1948), p. 22.

[28] Wilke. “Who is Afraid of Jewish Universalism?” p. 73.

[29] James Loeffler. Rooted Cosmopolitans: Jews and Human Rights in the Twentieth Century (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2018), p. 86.

[30] Ibid., p. 87.

[31] “Leo Motzkin (1867 - 1933).” Israel and Zionism. Department of Jewish Education. Retrieved from https://web.archive.org/web/20071113200527/http://www.jafi.org.il/education/100/people/BIOS/motzkin.html

[32] Peter Mentzel. “Franz Oppenheimer (March 30, 1864).” Online Liberty Library. Retrieved from https://oll.libertyfund.org/page/franz-oppenheimer-birthday-biography-march-1864

[33] Loeffler. Rooted Cosmopolitans, p. 48.

[34] Ibid.

[35] Ibid.

[36] “Nahum Goldmann. The war years.” Jewish Heritage Online. Retrieved from http://www.jfkmontreal.com/cache/chirac/goldmann_waryears.htm

[37] “Executive Order Creating the War Refugee Board (January 1944).” Jewish Virtual Library. Retrieved from http://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/Holocaust/wrb1.html

[38] Susanne Berger & Vadim Birstein. “The Secret Swedish-Hungarian Intelligence Sharing Agreement 1943-44: Possible Implications for the Raoul Wallenberg Case.” Buxus Edition (2020), p. 55, n. 116.

[39] Goodrick-Clarke. Occult Roots of Nazism, p. 148.

[40] Susanne Berger & Vadim Birstein. “The Secret Swedish-Hungarian Intelligence Sharing Agreement 1943-44: Possible Implications for the Raoul Wallenberg Case.” Buxus Edition (2020), p. 19.

[41] Bertram D. Hulen. “Charter Becomes ‘Law of Nations’, 29 Ratifying It.” New York Times (October 25, 1946), p. 1.

[42] Loeffler. Rooted Cosmopolitans, p. 85.

[43] Ibid., p. 87.

[44] James Loeffler. “The Zionist Founders of the Human Rights Movement.” New York Times (May 14, 2018). Retrieved from https://www.nytimes.com/2018/05/14/opinion/zionism-israel-human-rights.html

[45] Loeffler. Rooted Cosmopolitans, p. 100.

[46] Ibid., p. 86.

[47] James Loeffler. “The Zionist Founders of the Human Rights Movement.” New York Times (May 14, 2018). Retrieved from https://www.nytimes.com/2018/05/14/opinion/zionism-israel-human-rights.html

[48] J. Cooper. Raphael Lemkin and the Struggle for the Genocide Convention (Palgrave Macmillan, 2008), p. 89.

[49] Loeffler. Rooted Cosmopolitans, p. 204.

[50] Martin Gilbert. “Israel was Everything.” New York Times (June 21, 1987).

[51] Avner, Yehuda. The Prime Ministers (2010).

[52] Edward E. Grusd. B’nai B’rith: The Story of a Covenant (Appleton-Century, 1966). p. 243.

[53] Harry S. Truman. Memoirs 2, p. 158; cited in George Lenczowski. American Presidents and the Middle East (1990), p. 28.

[54] Ronen Bergman. “The Intelligence operation which led to the UN Decision to establish Israel, exactly 69 years ago.” New York Times Magazine (October 7, 2011). Retrieved from https://ronenbergman.com/2011/10/intelligence-operation-led-un-decision-establish-israel-exactly-69-years-ago-new-york-times-magazine-story/

[55] Anita Shapira (1992), p. 295.

[56] Avi Shlaim. “The Debate About 1948.” International Journal of Middle East Studies, 27:3 (1995), pp. 287–304. Retrieved from https://web.archive.org/web/20110605062304/http://www.press.umich.edu/pdf/9780472115419-ch5.pdf

[57] Benny Morris. The Birth of the Palestinian Refugee Problem revisited (Cambridge University Press: 2008), pp. 404-406.

[58] Benny Morris. 1948: The First Arab-Israeli War (Yale University Press, New Haven, 2008), pp. 269–71.

[59] Amir Oren. “British Documents Reveal: Begin Refused Entry to U.K. in 1950s.” Haaretz (July 7, 2011).

[60] Alfred M. Lilienthal. The Zionist Connection, What Price Peace? (Dodd, Mead and Company, New York, 1978), pp. 350–3.

[61] Robert N. Rosen. Saving the Jews: Franklin D. Roosevelt and the Holocaust (New York: Thunder’s Mouth Press, 2006), p. 318.

[62] Bethell Nicholas. The Palestine Triangle: The Struggle between British, Jews, and the Arabs, 1935–48 (1979), p. 278.

[63] Rosen Bergman. “The secret history of Mossad, Israel's feared and respected intelligence agency.” New Statesman (August 15, 2018). Retrieved from https://www.newstatesman.com/world/middle-east/2018/08/secret-history-mossad-israel-s-feared-and-respected-intelligence-agency

[64] Ibid.

[65] Ephraim Kahana. “Mossad-CIA Cooperation.” International Journal of Intelligence and CounterIntelligence, 14:3 (2001), pp. 410.

[66] Yossi Melman. “History of CIA-Israel collaboration.” Haaretz (March 11, 2006). Retrieved from http://www.haaretz.com/hasen/spages/692298.html

[67] Wolf Blitzer. “Mossad-CIA Ties Legacy of Casey and Angleton.” Wall Street Journal (May 22, 1987). Retrieved from https://www.cia.gov/readingroom/docs/CIA-RDP90-00965R000100540001-4.pdf

[68] “Israeli spy who snared Eichmann.” Sydney Morning Herald (April 15, 2003).

[69] Polkehn. “The Secret Contacts,” p. 73.

[70] Renee Ghert-Zand. “No longer just pretty faces, Rothschild family women take center stage in new book.” The Times of Israel (October 31, 2022). Retrieved from https://www.timesofisrael.com/no-longer-just-pretty-faces-rothschild-family-women-take-center-stage-in-new-book/

[71] Kenneth Rose. Elusive Rothschild: the Life of Victor, Third Baron (London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson, 2003).

[72] Kenneth Robert Henderson Mackenzie. The Royal Masonic Cyclopaedia (Aquarian Press, 1987).

[73] “ROSSLYN COUNTESS DEAD AT AGE OF 94; Last of Great Hostesses of Victorian Period Was a Beauty of the Court. ENTERTAINED NOTED MEN Disraeli and Gladstone Often Her Guests Dowager Peeress Leaves 70 Descendants.” The New York Times (December 9, 1933).

[74] Yotam Berger. “Secret 1970 document confirms first West Bank settlements built on a lie.” Haaretz ((July 28, 2016). Retrieved from https://www.haaretz.com/israel-news/.premium-document-confirms-first-settlements-built-on-a-lie-1.5416937

[75] Ofer Aderet. “Israel Poisoned Palestinian Land to Build West Bank Settlement in 1970s, Documents Reveal.” Haaretz (23 June 2023). Retrieved from https://www.haaretz.com/israel-news/2023-06-23/ty-article-magazine/.premium/israel-poisoned-palestinian-land-to-build-west-bank-settlement-in-1970s-documents-reveal/00000188-e8aa-df52-a79d-fcabdd200000

[76] Yossi Klein Halevi. “Likud’s Advantage With the Settlers.” The New York Times (May 11, 2011). Retrieved from https://www.nytimes.com/roomfordebate/2010/09/01/negotiating-with-the-israeli-settlers/likuds-advantage-with-the-settlers

[77] “Ariel Sharon: Hero or butcher? Five things to know.” CNN (January 11, 2014). Retrieved from https://edition.cnn.com/2014/01/11/world/meast/ariel-sharon-5-things/index.html

[78] Tovah Lazaroff & Herb Keinon. “Cabinet seeks to limit Barak’s say on settlements.” Jerusalem Post (June 20, 2011). Retrieved from http://www.jpost.com/Diplomacy-and-Politics/Cabinet-seeks-to-limit-Baraks-say-on-settlements

[79] Israel Ministry of Foreign Affairs, 23. “Government statement on recognition of three settlements.” (July 26, 1977). Retrieved from http://www.mfa.gov.il/MFA/Foreign%20Relations/Israels%20Foreign%20Relations%20since%201947/1977-1979/23%20Government%20statement%20on%20recognition%20of%20three%20se

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