30. Zionism

White Ass

Historian Haim Hillel Ben-Sasson argued that the secular Zionism of Theodor Herzl cannot be understood without reference to the Sabbatean movement.[1] In the nineteenth century, the newly emancipated Jews sought a unique symbol to identify themselves and chose the Star of David for its lack of specifically religious connotations, when the symbol finally became widely adopted. The six-pointed Star of David became representative of the worldwide Zionist community after it was chosen as the central symbol on a flag at the First Zionist Congress in 1897. In the same year, at considerable personal expense, Herzl founded the Zionist newspaper Die Welt in Vienna, and planned the First Zionist Congress in Basel, Switzerland. He was elected president of the Congress, a position he held until his death in 1904.

The Sabbatean influences on the Zionist movement are demonstrated by its rejection of Jewish law, while also adhering to the expectations of the Messiah, and the return of all Jews dispersed in the Diaspora to the Promised Land. In “Herzl’s Image and the Messianic Idea,” Arthur Kamczycki explained that, “From the very beginning Zionism opposed the conservative rabbinate and the religious Jewry in general.”[2] According to orthodox interpretation, the restoration of Zion by the Messiah could not be brought about through a human whose actions would be subject to God’s will.[3] Additionally, attempts at estimating the time of the Messiah’s arrival were seen as blasphemy. Herzl, who was aware of this discrepancy, stated that “the orthodoxy should understand that there is no contradiction between God’s will and the Zionist attempt of grabbing the destiny with one’s own hands.”[4]

During a two-week trip to Italy in 1904, Herzl met with Pope Pius X in an effort to gain his support for the cause of Zionism.  The meeting occurred two days after Herzl had met with Victor Emmanuel III of Italy (1869 – 1947). In addition to showing an interest in the Zionist movement, Victor Emmanuel III revealed that one of his ancestors had been a co-conspirator of Shabbetai Zevi. When the king asked Herzl if there were still Jews who expected the Messiah, Herzl assured him: “Naturally, Your Majesty, among religious circles. In our own, the university-trained and enlightened classes, no such thought exists […] our movement has a purely national character.”[5] Herzl mentioned to the king that while visiting Jerusalem, he did not want to use a white horse, mule or donkey in order to avoid evoking the iconographic tradition of the Messiah who is often portrayed as a man on a white horse, mule or donkey, usually entering the city. Nevertheless, in the Central Zionist Archives in Jerusalem are two photographs showing Herzl riding on the back of a white donkey.[6]

A few months before meeting Victor Emmanuel III, Herzl was warned by Dr. Joseph Samuel Bloch, editor of the Österreichische Wochenschrift, that if he were to present himself as the Messiah, that all Jews would reject him. Instead, he told Herzl, “The Messiah must remain a veiled, hidden figure.”[7] Nevertheless, in “Theodor Herzl: Between Myth and Messianism,” Robert S. Wistrichin pointed out, “Yet his diaries testify that from June 1895 (when his Zionist conversion is usually dated) his curiosity and even sense of affinity with Shabbetai Zevi was growing.”[8] Herzl wrote in a diary entry from March 1896: “the difference between myself and Shabbetai Zevi, or the way I perceive him… is that Zevi became so great that he equaled the greats of this world, whereas I belong to the little ones of this world.”[9] In Herzl’s utopian novel Old-New Land (1902), the protagonists are presented with the choice of spending an evening at a theatrical performance, a drama about Moses, or an opera about Zevi, they choose the opera. The novel’s protagonist David Littwak, while watching the opera, explains the success of false leaders:

It was not that the people believed what these charlatans told them, but the other way round—they told them what they wanted to believe. They satisfied a deep longing. That is it. The longing brings forth the Messiah. You must remember what miserable dark ages they were, the times of Sabbatai and his like. Our people were not yet able to gauge their own strength, so they were fascinated by the spell these men cast over them. Only later, at the end of the nineteenth century when all the other civilized nations had already gained their national pride and acted accordingly—only then did our people, the pariah among the nations, realize that they could expect nothing from fantastic miracle-workers, but everything from their own strength.[10]

Herzl’s appeals fared best with Israel Zangwill (1864 – 1926), and Max Nordau (1849 – 1923), co-founder of the World Zionist Organization (WZO) together with Herzl at the First Zionist Congress in Basel. Zangwill, who earned the nickname “the Dickens of the Ghetto,” wrote an internationally successful novel Children of the Ghetto: A Study of a Peculiar People (1892). Zangwill’s Dreamers of the Ghetto (1898) consists of a series of sketches based on the lives of historical figures, including Benjamin Disraeli, Heinrich Heine, Ferdinand Lassalle, Spinoza, and a glowing account of the mission of Shabbetai Zevi.

Hovevei Zion

Joseph Brociner, who become one of the leaders of the Hovevei Zion movement in Romania, which preceded the Zionist Organization founded at the First Zionist Congress, proposed to Herzl to found a Zionist association in the country.[11] It was another leader of the Romanian Hovevei Zion, Moses Gaster, and later Hakham, or Chief Rabbi, of the Bevis Marks Synagogue in London, and founder of the British Zionist Federation, who were to be the recipients of the Balfour Declaration, who introduced Henry Pereira Mendes to Herzl. Herzl then asked Mendes to spread the Zionist cause in America and became one of the founders of the Federation of American Zionists, serving as its president.[12]

In 1891, Baron Maurice de Hirsch established the Baron de Hirsch Fund in New York City to help Russian Jews immigrate to the USA. Myer S. Isaacs, who was also a member of the Central Committee of the Alliance Israélite Universelle, was the fund’s President and Jacob Schiff was the Vice President. In cooperation with the Baron de Hirsch Fund, B’nai B’rith also sought to promote the establishment of Jewish agricultural colonies.[13] Through a special office in Washington, maintained until its national headquarters were also moved to that city, B’nai B’rith rendered legal aid to thousands of Jewish immigrants through the services their national spokesman, Lincoln-assassination conspirator Simon Wolf.[14]

In 1891, Hirsch founded the Jewish Colonization Association (JCA or ICA) to help Jews from Russia and Romania to settle in Argentina. Baron de Hirsch died in 1896 and thereafter the JCA began to also assist the Jewish settlement in Palestine. At the end of 1899, Baron Edmond James de Rothschild (1845 – 1934), youngest child of James Mayer de Rothschild—a defender of the Sabbateans[15]—transferred title to his colonies in Palestine plus fifteen million francs to the JCA. Through his daughter-in-law, Dorothy de Rothschild, a close friend of Chaim Weizmann, Edmond would be introduced to the English branch of the Rothschild family, in particular, to Lionel Walter Rothschild, the son of Baron Nathan Rothschild, who would become the official recipient of the Balfour Declaration. Edmond also provided funding for the establishment of Petah Tikva, a city in the Central District of Israel, as a permanent settlement in 1883. Overall, he bought from Ottoman landlords 2–3% of the land which now makes up present-day Israel.[16]

Edmond James de Rothschild was also a supporter of Hovevei Zion (“Lovers of Zion”), a variety of organizations founded in Odessa in 1881, in response to the anti-Jewish pogroms in the Russian Empire, and now considered the foundation-builders of modern Zionism. Odessa, in what is now Ukraine, on the northwestern shore of the Black Sea, for a time was the third largest Jewish city in the world. Odessa became home to an extremely diverse population of Albanians, Armenians, Azeris, Bulgarians, Crimean Tatars, Frenchmen, Germans (including Mennonites), Greeks, Italians, Jews, Poles, Romanians, Russians, Turks, Ukrainians. Its cosmopolitan nature was documented by the great Russian poet Alexander Pushkin, who lived in internal exile in Odessa between 1823 and 1824. H.P. Blavatsky also spent many years of her childhood in Odessa, where her maternal grandfather Andrei Fadeyev, a civil administrator for the imperial authorities, had been posted. In 1905, Odessa was the site of a workers uprising supported by the crew of the Russian battleship Potemkin and the Menshevik’s Iskra, portrayed in Sergei Eisenstein’s famous movie The Battleship Potemkin.

Odessa traditionally had an ancient culture of banditry, dating back to its large and impoverished Jewish population. The Jewish community of Odessa was made up of Jews from all over Russia and also from other countries. Forbidden to reside in Saint Petersburg, Moscow or Kiev, Jews poured into the southern Russian cities of Odessa, eventually constituting a third of their population before the Second World War.[17] Old Odessa, explains Jarrod Tanny in City of Rogues and Schnorrers: Russia’s Jews and the myth of old Odessa, was also a “Judeo-kleptocracy,” a city overrun and governed by Jewish gangsters, smugglers, thieves, pimps and swindlers. According to Tanny, “Old Odessa is Russia’s Great Southern Babylon, and successive generations of mythmakers have commemorated it in literature, film, humor, and song.”[18] Isaac Babel wrote Odessa Tales (1931), featuring tales of the Jewish gangsters of Odessa, for which he has been hailed as the greatest Russian Jewish writer that ever lived. Their legendary exploits created the myth of the Jewish gangster of Odessa, in stark contrast to the stereotype dominant elsewhere of the meek scholarly ghetto Jew, constantly the victim of pogroms.[19]

As one historian put it, “the Jewish community of Odessa continued to stand in the vanguard of nearly every modernist Jewish movement developed in the Russian empire.”[20] The influence in Odessa of the Maskilim, exponents of the Haskalah, was considerable and also reached other parts of Russia. While the Haskalah achieved successes in Germany and Austria, the movement was largely rejected inside Russia, where members were often ostracized and persecuted.[21] Nevertheless, their numbers increased, and soon there were attempts to found schools to offer secular education to Jewish children. Hirsch (Hyman) Baer Hurwitz opened such a school in Uman in the Ukraine, in 1822, “after the system of Mendelssohn.”[22] Similar schools were established in Odessa and Kishinef, and later in Riga and Wilna. The Haskalah in Odessa began with a group of settlers who migrated to the city from Brody, a town in Austrian-controlled Galicia, who started arriving in the 1820s. In 1840 they opened up the Brodskii Synagogue, the first “modern” synagogue in Russia whose service was patterned on the reforms then taking place in Germany.[23] The Friends of Enlightenment was founded in 1879 by Rabbi Abraham Danon from Edirne, who later became director of the seminary founded by the Alliance Israélite Universelle at Constantinople.[24] The Rothschild family archives show that during the 1870s the family contributed nearly 500,000 francs per year on behalf of Eastern Jewry to the Alliance Israélite Universelle.[25]

Pogroms were carried out in 1821, 1859, 1871, 1881 and 1905. Many Odessan Jews fled abroad after 1882, particularly to the Ottoman region that became Palestine, and the city became an important base of support for Zionism. From the inception of the Hibbat Zion movement—also known as Hovevei Zion—Odessa served as its chief center. Hibbat Zion were officially constituted as a group at a conference led in 1884 by Leon Pinsker (1821 – 1891), who gained the backing of Baron Edmond James de Rothschild. Pinsker, who had been influenced by the Haskalah, no longer believed that mere humanism and Enlightenment would defeat anti-Semitism. Many of the first groups were established in Eastern European countries in the early 1880s with the aim to promote Jewish immigration to Palestine, and advance Jewish settlement there. The Benei Moshe Society founded by Achad Ha-Am in 1889, which attempted to organize the intellectuals and activists of the movement, was established in Odessa.

World Zionist Organization (WZO)

In 1897, when the First Zionist Congress established the World Zionist Organization (WZO), at the initiative of Theodor Herzl, most of the Hovevei Zion societies joined it, and it also adopted the Hatikvah, the anthem of Hovevei Zion, which later became the national anthem of the State of Israel. The beliefs of the majority of members of the as the WZO were initially referred to as General Zionism, which supported the leadership of Chaim Weizmann. A variety of types of Zionism emerged, including political Zionism, liberal Zionism, labor Zionism, revisionist Zionism, cultural Zionism, and religious Zionism. The term General Zionism was first used at the Eighth Zionist Congress of 1907 to distinguish the delegates who were neither affiliated with Labor Zionism nor religious Zionism. David Ben-Gurion is considered one of the major theoreticians of the Labor Zionist movement. The Labor Zionists, maintains Zeev Sternhell, in The Founding Myths of Israel, maintained that the movement’s synthesis of socialism and nationalism was its main historical achievement and its claim to uniqueness among labor movements.”[26] Continuing from the work of Moses Hess, Ber Borochov (1881 – 1917), helped form the Poale Zion party, a movement of Marxist–Zionist Jewish workers founded in various cities of Poland, Europe and the Russian Empire in 1901.

The General Zionists began to lean towards Labor or Revisionist Zionism. Revisionist Zionism, founded by Ze’ev Jabotinsky (1880 – 1940), was the chief ideological competitor to the dominant socialist Labor Zionism. Jabotinsky, who was born in Odessa, acquired a job as a correspondent for a local Odessan newspaper, the Odesskiy Listok, and was sent to Bern and Rome as a correspondent. In his autobiography, Jabotinsky confessed that “my entire outlook on issues concerning nation, state and society took shape during those years under Italian influence,” and pointed directly to “the myth of Garibaldi, the works of Mazzini, the poetry of Giacomo Leopardi and Giuseppe Giusti, [which] added depth to my shallow Zionism, transforming it from an instinctive sentiment into a concept.”[27] In 1903, Jabotinsky was elected as a Russian delegate to the Sixth Zionist Congress in Basel, Switzerland. After Theodor Herzl’s death in 1904, he became the leader of the right-wing Zionists.

Jabotinsky advocated a “revision” of the “practical Zionism” of David Ben-Gurion and Chaim Weizmann which was focused on individuals settling Palestine. Jabotinsky’s main demand was the creation of Greater Israel. Jabotinsky also held views that were often typical of Zionist anti-Semitism. Early Zionists contrasted their ideal of the “new Jew” or “Hebrew,” against the Yid, the negative caricature of European Jewry, employing language similar to that of anti-Semites. Jabotinsky wrote, for example:

Our starting point is to take the typical Yid of today and to imagine his diametrical opposite… because the Yid is ugly, sickly, and lacks decorum, we shall endow the ideal image of the Hebrew with masculine beauty. The Yid is trodden upon and easily frightened and, therefore, the Hebrew ought to be proud and independent. The Yid is despised by all and, therefore, the Hebrew ought to charm all. The Yid has accepted submission and, therefore, the Hebrew ought to learn how to command. The Yid wants to conceal his identity from strangers and, therefore, the Hebrew should look the world straight in the eye and declare: “I am a Hebrew!”[28]

During the 17th Zionist Congress in 1931, a vote would take place on whether or not the Congress would pursue the “ultimate objective” platform of the Revisionist Zionists. A message was sent from Palestine relayed the of fear of an Arab pogrom if the “all or nothing stance” of the Revisionist Party were adopted, resulting in the rejection of the proposal. After two years of campaigning, the Labor Zionist party won the election to have leadership of the Zionist Congress at the 18th Congress in 1933.[29] In 1935, after the Zionist Executive rejected his political program, Jabotinsky resigned from the WZO, and founded the New Zionist Organization (NZO), known in Hebrew as Tzakh.

Zionist Organization of America (ZOA)

The “reluctant father of American Zionism” was Columbia professor Richard Gottheil (1862 – 1936). Gottheil’s father, Gustav Gottheil, eventually became the chief Rabbi and one of the most influential, well-known and controversial leaders of Reform Judaism in America. Gustav succeeded Samuel Adler as rabbi of Temple Emanu-El, a flagship congregation in the Reform branch of Judaism in the United States. Unlike most Reform Jews of the time, Rabbi Gottheil was a supporter of Zionism and attended the First Zionist Congress of 1897 in Basel. In the same year, his son Richard Gottheil founded the Federation of American Zionist Societies of New York (FAZ), an amalgam of Jewish societies that all endorsed the Basel program of the First Zionist Congress. FAZ established The Maccabean, the first English language Zionist magazine, edited by Louis Lipsky, who would later become the voice for the later Zionist Organization of America (ZOA), the first official Zionist organization in the United States.[30]

From 1898 to 1904, Gottheil was president of the American Federation of Zionists, and worked with both Stephen S. Wise (1874 – 1949), who became FAZ’s secretary. Helen Rawlinson in her book Stranger At The Party, recounts a sexual encounter where she describes how Wise had sex with her in his office on his conference table, and quoted the verse from Psalms which Sabbateans did when engaged in sexual intercourse.[31] When Gottheil attended the second Zionist Congress in Basel of 1898, establishing relationships with Theodor Herzl and Max Nordau, Rabbi Wise attended as the American correspondent for William Randolph Hearst’s New York Journal.[32]

Herzl recommended to Gottheil that he hire Jacob de Haas (1872 – 1937), the secretary of the First Zionist Congress, who became the new secretary of FAZ. De Haas befriended later U.S. Supreme Court Justice Louis Dembitz Brandeis (1856 – 1941), whom he introduced to the ideas of Herzl and ideals of Zionism, and who would later assist Chaim Weizmann in formulating the Balfour Declaration. Brandeis belonged to a Frankist family, being descended from Esther Frankel, an aunt of Rabbi Zecharias Frankel, a Sabbatean and intellectual progenitor of Conservative Judaism.[33] Brandeis, would head the FAZ and the American Zionist movement by 1912. Brandeis was head of world Zionism when the war forced the movement to relocate its headquarters to New York from Berlin. Under Brandeis’ leadership, the American Zionist movement grew from 10,000 members to over 200,000 members by 1920.

Brandeis encouraged Felix Frankfurter (1882 – 1965) to become more involved in Zionism.[34] Frankfurter received a portrait of Jacob Frank’s daughter Eva from his mother, a tradition among Sabbateans.[35] During World War I, Frankfurter served as Judge Advocate General. After the war, he helped found the American Civil Liberties Union (ACLU) and returned to his position as professor at Harvard Law School. He became a friend and adviser of President Franklin D. Roosevelt, who appointed him to the Supreme Court, where he served from 1939 to 1962. Frankfurter famously said, “The real rulers in Washington are invisible and exercise their power from behind the scenes.”[36] Brandeis, Frankfurter, Wise and others laid the groundwork for a democratically elected nationwide organization of “ardently Zionist” Jews, “to represent Jews as a group and not as individuals.”[37] In 1918, following national elections, this Jewish community convened the first American Jewish Congress (AJC). Rabbi Wise remained the President and chief spokesperson of the AJC until his death in 1949.

Christian Zionism

Important in exploiting Britain for its ambitions, Zionism made use of Sabbatean millenarianism, as expressed in an interpretation of the End Times known as Dispensationalism, which developed from Evangelical Christianity and contributed to the emergence of Christian Zionism. John Nelson Darby (1800 – 1882), one of the influential figures of the Plymouth Brethren—a sect that derived from the Moravian Church, that Aleister Crowley was raised in[38]—devised the system of dispensationalism that was incorporated in the development of modern Evangelicalism, and which reflected the millenarian aspirations of Sabbateanism. As a hint of their probable crypto-Judaism, Christian dispensationalists sometimes embrace what some critics have pejoratively called “Judeophilia,” which includes support of the state of Israel, observing traditional Jewish holidays and practicing traditionally Jewish religious rituals.[39] Dispensationalist beliefs are at the forefront of Christian Zionism, which shares the exact same ambitions of the Zionists, but instead when God has fulfilled his promises to the nation of Israel, the future world to come will result in a millennial kingdom and Third Temple where Christ, upon his return, will rule the world from Jerusalem for a thousand years.

The foundations of Christian Zionism were laid when Darby visited the United States and catalyzed a new movement. This was expressed at the Niagara Bible Conference in 1878, which issued a 14-point proclamation, including the following text:

that the Lord Jesus will come in person to introduce the millennial age, when Israel shall be restored to their own land, and the earth shall be full of the knowledge of the Lord; and that this personal and premillennial advent is the blessed hope set before us in the Gospel for which we should be constantly looking. (Luke 12:35–40; 17:26–30; 18:8 Acts 15:14–17; 2 Thess. 2:3–8; 2 Tim. 3:1–5; Titus 1:11–15)

In 1891, the tycoon William Eugene Blackstone (1841 – 1935), who was inspired by the Niagara Bible Conference to publish the book Jesus is Coming, had lobbied President Benjamin Harrison for the restoration of the Jews, in a petition signed by 413 prominent Americans, that became known as the Blackstone Memorial. The names included the US Chief Justice, Speaker of the House of Representatives, the Chair of the House Foreign Relations Committee, and several other congressmen, future President William McKinley, and Chief Justice Melville Fuller, John D. Rockefeller, J.P. Morgan Sr. and other famous industrialists. It read, in part: “Why shall not the powers which under the treaty of Berlin, in 1878, gave Bulgaria to the Bulgarians and Servia [Serbia]to the Servians [Serbians] now give Palestine back to the Jews?… These provinces, as well as Romania, Montenegro, and Greece, were wrested from the Turks and given to their natural owners. Does not Palestine as rightfully belong to the Jews?”[40]

Dispensationalist beliefs were popularized in the United States by the evangelical Cyrus Scofield (1843 – 1921), who had a history of fraud.[41] Two years after Scofield’s reported conversion to Christianity in 1879, the Atchison Patriot described Scofield as “late lawyer, politician and shyster generally,” and went on to recount a few of Scofield’s “many malicious acts.” Scofield was heavily influenced by Darby, as evidenced in the explanatory notes to his Scofield Reference Bible, which became the most influential statement of dispensationalism. A core doctrine is the expectation of the Second Coming and the establishment of a Kingdom of God on Earth. Scofield further predicted that Islamic holy places would be destroyed and the Temple in Jerusalem would be rebuilt, signaling the end of the Church Age when all who seek to keep the covenant with God will acknowledge Jesus as their Messiah in defiance of the Antichrist.

On May 16, 1916, at the behest of Louis Brandeis, Nathan Straus (1848 – 1931)—who co-owned two of New York City’s biggest department stores, R.H. Macy & Company and Abraham & Straus—wrote Rev. Blackstone:

Mr. Brandeis is perfectly infatuated with the work that you have done along the lines of Zionism. It would have done your heart good to have heard him assert what a valuable contribution to the cause your document is. In fact he agrees with me that you are the Father of Zionism, as your work antedates Herzl.[42]

Brandeis recruited Scofield after he joined the prestigious Lotos Club in New York. Founded primarily by a young group of writers and critics, the club was composed of journalists, artists, musicians, actors and amateurs of literature, science and fine arts. Mark Twain, an early member, called it the “Ace of Clubs.” The Club took its name from “The Lotos-Eaters,” a poem by Tennyson. Alluding to the use of opium, the poem describes a group of mariners who, upon eating the lotos, are put into an altered state and isolated from the outside world.


[1] Matt Plen. “Who Was Shabbetai Zevi?” My Jewish Learning. Retrieved from https://www.myjewishlearning.com/article/shabbetai-zevi/

[2] Kornberg. Theodor Herzl, p. 248.

[3] See Yosef Salmon. “Tradition and Nationalism,” in Jehuda Reinharz, Anita Shapira (eds.), Essential Papers on Zionism (New York–London, 1995), p. 106; cited in Arthur Kamczycki. “Herzl’s Image and the Messianic Idea,” Studia Judaica 18 (2015), 2 (36), p. 248.

[4] Theodor Herzl. Altneueland: Roman (Leipzig, 1902), p. 27; cited in Kamczycki. “Herzl’s Image and the Messianic Idea,” p. 248.

[5] Entry of January 23, 1904. In Marvin Lowenthal (ed. and trans.), The Diaries of Theodor Herzl (London, 1958), pp, 425–426; cited in Robert S. Wistrichin. “Theodor Herzl: Between Myth and Messianism,” in Mark H. Gelber & Vivian Liska (eds.), Theodor Herzl: From Europe to Zion (Tübingen: Max Niemeyer Verlag 2007), p. 19.

[6] Kamczycki. “Herzl’s Image and the Messianic Idea,” p. 244.

[7] “Chaim Bloch: Theodor Herzl and Joseph S. Bloch,” in Herzl Year Book 1 (1958), p. 158; cited in Wistrichin. “Theodor Herzl: Between Myth and Messianism,” p. 18.

[8] Robert S. Wistrichin. “Theodor Herzl: Between Myth and Messianism,” in Mark H. Gelber & Vivian Liska (eds.), Theodor Herzl: From Europe to Zion (Tübingen: Max Niemeyer Verlag 2007), p. 17.

[9] The Diaries of Theodor Herzl, ed. and trans. Maurice Lowenthal (Gloucester, 1978), 3: 960; cited in Kamczycki. “Herzl’s Image and the Messianic Idea,” p. 243.

[10] Theodor Herzl. Old-New Land (Haifa: Haifa Publishing Company 1960), p. 82-83; cited in Wistrichin. “Theodor Herzl: Between Myth and Messianism,” p. 17.

[11] Michael J. Reimer. The First Zionist Congress (SUNY Press, 2019), p. 381.

[12] Jewish Daily Bulletin (May 24, 1934).

[13] Bernard Postal. “B’nai B’rith: A Century of Service.” The American Jewish Year Book, 45 (1943), p. 106.

[14] Ibid.

[15] Novak. Jacob Frank.

[16] Moshe Aumann. “Land Ownership in Palestine, 1880–1948.” Survival of a Nation. The Rohr Jewish Learning Institute. Retrieved from https://lessons.myjli.com/survival/index.php/2017/03/26/land-ownership-in-palestine-1880-1948/

[17] “The Jewish Community of Odessa.” The Museum of the Jewish People at Beit Hatfutsot.

[18] Jarrod Tanny. City of Rogues and Schnorrers: Russia’s Jews and the myth of old Odessa (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2011), p. 2.

[19] Ibid, p. 3.

[20] Edmund Spencer. Travels in Circassia, 2 vols (London: H. Colburn, 1839), p. 97–98. Cited in Tanny. City of Rogues and Schnorrers, p. 29.

[21] Herman Rosenthal & Peter Wiernik. “HASKALAH.” Jewish Encyclopedia.

[22] Ibid.

[23] Jarrod Tanny. City of Rogues and Schnorrers: Russia’s Jews and the myth of old Odessa (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2011), p. 28.

[24] Isidore Singer, M. Franco. “DANON, ABRAHAM.” Jewish Encyclopedia.

[25] Ran Aharonson. Rothschild and early Jewish colonization in Palestine (Jerusalem: The Hebrew university Magnes Press, 2000), p. 54.

[26] Zeev Sternhell. The Founding Myths of Zionism (Princeton University Press, 1998), p. 3.

[27] Joseph Heller. “Jabotinsky’s Use of National Myths in Political Struggles.” In Ezra Mendelsohn (ed.) Studies in Contemporary Jewry: XII: Literary Strategies: Jewish Texts and Contexts (Oxford University Press, 1996), p. 186.

[28] Amnon Rubinstein. From Herzl to Rabin: The Changing Image of Zionism (Holmes & Meier, 2000). Retrieved from https://archive.nytimes.com/www.nytimes.com/books/first/r/rubinstein-herzl.html?scp=89&sq=beautiful%2520brutes&st=cse

[29] Zeev Tzahor. “The Struggle between the Revisionist Party and the Labor Movement: 1929-1933.” Modern Judaism, 8:1 (1988)), pp. 15–25.

[30] Jerry Klinger. “Richard Gottheil the Reluctant Father of American Zionism.” Jewish Magazine. Retrieved from http://www.jewishmag.com/118mag/richard_gottheil/richard_gottheil.htm

[31] Rabbi Antelman. To Eliminate the Opiate, Vol 2, p. 217.

[32] Richard Gottheil. “The Reluctant Father of American Zionism.”

[33] Gershom Scholem. “A Sabbatean Will Work from New York,” The Messianic Idea in Judaism: And Other Essays on Jewish Spirituality (New York: Schocken, 1971).

[34] Elinor Slater & Robert Slater. Great Jewish Men (Jonathan David Company, Inc, 1996), pp. 112–115.

[35] Jerry Rabow. 50 Jewish Messiahs: The Untold Life Stories of 50 Jewish Messiahs Since Jesus and how They Changed the Jewish, Christian, and Muslim Worlds (Gefen Publishing House Ltd, 2002), p. 132.

[36] Barry Chamish. Shabtai Tavi, Labor Zionism and the Holocaust (Lulu), p. 292.

[37] “Religion: Jews v. Jews.” Time Magazine (June 20, 1938).

[38] Tim O’Neill. “The Erotic Freemasonry of Count Nicholas von Zinzendorf,” in Secret and Suppressed: Banned Ideas and Hidden History, ed. Jim Keith (Feral House, l993), pp. 103-08.

[39] Catalin Negru. History of the Apocalypse (Lulu Press, 2015).

[40] Yaakov Ariel. On Behalf of Israel; American Fundamentalist Attitudes toward Jews, Judaism, and Zionism, 1865–1945 (New York: Carlson Publishing, 1991), pp. 70–72.

[41] Michael Phillips. White Metropolis: Race, Ethnicity, and Religion in Dallas, 1841–2001 (Austin: University of Texas, 2006), p. 47–48.

[42] William Blackstone papers, Wheaton College, Il.

Zionism