17. The Salonnières

Aestheticism

At the intersection of literary imagination and magic, Friedrich Schlegel noted: “Aesthetics = Kabbalah – there is no other.”[1] According to Aestheticism, which has its roots in German Romanticism, art and typography should be produced to be beautiful, rather than to teach a lesson, create a parallel, or perform another didactic purpose, a sentiment best illustrated by the slogan “art for art’s sake.” Winckelmann, whose open homoeroticism formed his writings on aesthetics, followed the lectures of Alexander Gottlieb Baumgarten (1714 – 1762), who coined the term in his Aesthetica (1750).[2] In his Critique of Judgment (1790), Kant conformed to Baumgarten’s new usage and employed the word aesthetic to mean the judgment of taste or the estimation of the beautiful. For Kant, an aesthetic judgment is subjective in that it relates to the internal feeling of pleasure or displeasure and not to any qualities in an external object. Kant, in turn, influenced Schiller’s Aesthetic Letters (1794) and his concept of art as Spiel (“Play”): “Man is never so serious as when he plays; man is wholly man only when he plays.” In the Letters, Schiller proclaimed salvation through art:

Man has lost his dignity, but Art has saved it, and preserved it for him in expressive marbles. Truth still lives in fiction, and from the copy the original will be restored.

In “The Emergence of Modern Religion: Moses Mendelssohn, Neoclassicism, and Ceremonial Aesthetics,” Zachary Braiterman explained the growth in the perceived value of aesthetics with the decline of the role of religion during the Enlightenment: “Historically, at that very moment in eighteenth-century Europe when art acquires its own autonomy and begins to resemble religion, religion turns into art, a peculiar type of ceremonial art.”[3] Therefore, Braiterman adds:

The Jewish style developed by Mendelssohn in the eighteenth century drew on the reworking of an antique idyll common at the time. Particularly in its appeal to Scripture, especially to the poetry of psalms, the invention of modern Judaism shared the free and creative innovation and transformation of ancient classical models of Greek and Roman art by European artists, sculptors, and poets.[4]

“The classic ideal embodied in Greek sculpture,” explained Braiternan, would soon be displaced in nineteenth-century German philosophy (Schelling’s Philosophy of Art and in Hegel’s Lectures on Fine Arts) by the so-called romantic arts of painting, poetry, and especially music.”[5] The Romantic movement was embodied most strongly in literature, the visual arts as well as music. One of the first significant applications of the term “romanticism” to music was in 1789, in the Mémoires by the Frenchman André Grétry (1741 – 1813), but it was E.T.A. Hoffmann  who established the principles of musical romanticism, in a lengthy review of Beethoven’s Fifth Symphony published in 1810, and in 1813, in article on Beethoven’s instrumental music, where he traced the beginnings of musical Romanticism to the later works of Haydn and Mozart. Hoffmann named Haydn, Mozart and Beethoven, the last two of whom were connected with the Asiatic Brethren, as “the three masters of instrumental compositions” who “breathe one and the same romantic spirit.”[6]

Itzig Family

Hoffmann was a member of the Die Serapionsbrüder along with his friend and biographer, of Julius Eduard Hitzig, grandson of Daniel Itzig of the Asiatic Brethren, whose family intermarried with that of Moses Mendelssohn. Both families had kinship with the families of Heine, Ephraim, Oppenheimer, Beer, Meyerbeer, the Counts Wimpffen and Fries, the Barons Pereira, Rothschild, and Pirquet.[7] As explained by Michael A. Meyer, in The Origins of the Modern Jew:

The image of the post-Mendelssohn generation in Germany would be grossly distorted if David Friedländer, the Mendelssohn children, and the salon Jewesses of Berlin were taken as typical. These exceptional individuals represented but a small segment of German Jewry, characterized by extraordinary intellect, beauty, or wealth. Either on the very fringe of the Jewish community or beyond it entirely, they bear witness to the fate of a Jewish self-awareness forced into the mold of a rigid rationalism or rejected in the intense introspection of an antinomian romanticism. They were the few who chose the extreme paths that led away from Judaism in opposite directions.[8]

 

One of the daughters of Daniel Itzig, Bluemchen, married David Friedländer (1750 – 1834), Moses Mendelssohn’s favorite disciple. Another of Itzig’s daughters, Franziska (Fanny) married the Austrian banker, Baron Nathan von Arnstein (1748 – 1838), another member of the Asiatic Brethren.[9] Arnstein was ennobled by Emperor Francis I, and  the first non-converted Jew in Austria to be granted the title of baron.[10] Fanny’s sister, Caecilie married Baron Bernhard von Eskeles (1753 – 1839), also a member of the Asiatic Brethren, who with Arnstein founded the Arnstein & Eskeles, one of the most prominent banking houses in Vienna. Their other sister Babette (Bella) Levi Salomon.[11] Their son was Jacob Salomon Bartholdy (1774 – 1825), who converted to Reformed Christianity.

Several of Mendelssohn’s own children, took the ultimate step of assimilation, converting to Christianity. Mendelssohn had six children, of whom only two remained in the Jewish faith: his second-oldest daughter, Recha, and his eldest son, Joseph Mendelssohn (1770 – 1848), founder of the Mendelssohn banking house, one of the leading banks in the nineteenth century. Moses’ son Abraham Mendelssohn (1776 – 1835), married Lea Salomon, the sister of Jacob Salomon Bartholdy and a granddaughter of Daniel Itzig. On the advice of Lea’s brother Jacob, Abraham took the name Bartholdy, which Jacob had adopted after a property which he had acquired. Both Abraham and Lea converted to Christianity, and didn’t circumcise their children, but had them baptized, including the composers Fanny and Felix Mendelssohn Bartholdy (1809 – 1847), who converted to Christianity, and became the famous composer. Fanny and Caecilie became leading salonnières, or “salon hostesses,” in Vienna, holding “large musical parties,” with Fanny entertaining celebrities such as Lord Nelson and Lady Hamilton, and at the Congress of Vienna in 1815 hosting the foremost statesmen of Europe, including Talleyrand, the Duke of Wellington, Viscount Castlereagh, and Karl August von Hardenberg (1750 – 1822).[12] Hardenberg, who served under Ferdinand Duke of Brunswick, and later become Chief Minister of Prussia, had been a founding member of the Masonic lodge Zur Wahrheit und Freundschaft (“Truth and Friendship”), with a patent from Prussian Grand lodge in Berlin, the Royal York of Friendship.[13] The Duke of Wellington had developed a close friendship with Madame de Staël, who had Lady Hamilton in mind when she composed Corinne, which Dorothea Schlegel translated into German.[14]

Berlin Salons

As explained by Petra Wilhelmy-Dollinger, in “Berlin Salons: Late Eighteenth to Early Twentieth Century,” Moses Mendelssohn “changed the life of some Jews in Berlin by encouraging them to take part in secular (German) education and literature. The ultimate aim was to demonstrate their fitness for civil rights.”[15] By the mid-eighteenth-century, the salons of Paris had become a traditional social institution, the institution did not develop in Berlin until the later nineteenth-century, where salons held by Jewish were an important part. Most important were the Itzig daughters, Sara Itzig Levy in Berlin and Fanny von Arnstein in Vienna. Enthusiasm for Goethe was a constant feature of these salons.[16] Fanny von Arnstein was joined in Vienna by two of her sisters, Caecilie von Eskeles and Rebekka Ephraim, became champions of a revival of German culture. In letters to Caecilie and Fanny, Goethe expressed gratitude for their tireless efforts to popularize his works in Vienna.[17]

As a young man, Arthur Schopenhauer (1788 – 1860) and his family had visited Fanny’s home.[18] In 1805, a year after her husband’s death, Arthur’s mother Johanna Schopenhauer and his sister Adele moved to Weimar. After the war, Johanna gained a high reputation as a salonnière whose semiweekly parties were attended by Martin Wieland, the Schlegel brothers Tieck, and Goethe. A close friend of Goethe’s daughter-in-law Ottilie, Adele often visited Goethe’s house in Weimar and was known to have called Goethe “father” who praised her abilities.[19] In 1810, Johanna published her first book, a biography of her friend Karl Ludwig Fernow, the librarian to duchess Anna Amalia of Weimar. Winckelmann’s works were re-edited in Weimar by Fernow, who worked on them until his death in 1808, and which were then completed between 1808 and 1825 by Johannes Schulze.[20] Schopenhauer was also captivated by the beautiful Karoline Jagemann, the major German actress, singer and mistress of Karl August, Grand Duke of Saxe-Weimar-Eisenach, and he wrote to her his only known love poem.[21] Schopenhauer was also a friend of Friedrich Laun, author of the  Gespensterbuch collection with August Apel.

The first salonnière in Berlin was Henriette Herz, who had apparently shared tutors with Mendelssohn’s daughters. At age fifteen, Herz married German-Jewish physician, seventeen years her senior, Markus Herz (1747 – 1803), who had studied with Kant and was also a friend and pupil of Mendelssohn, as well as acquainted with Lessing. Among her friends and acquaintances were Schiller, Wilhelm von Humboldt, Mirabeau, Fanny von Arnstein, and Madame de Genlis, the mother of the Duke of Orleans, Philippe Égalité. After the death of her husband, she came under the powerful influence of Schleiermacher, another frequent visitor to her salons, and converted to Protestantism. Considered one of the “Salon Jewesses,” Henriette described her home as one “that with no exaggeration could be reckoned among the most respected and fashionable houses in Berlin. For many years, all of Berlin’s prominent people frequented us.”[22]

Dorothea met Friedrich Schlegel at the salon of Henriette Herz, who with the assistance of Schleiermacher helped Dorothea secure a divorce from Simon Veit.[23] Through Dorothea and Henriette Mendelssohn, Henriette was introduced to another famous salonnière Rahel Varnhagen, with whom she would become intimately associated throughout her life. As Dorothea came under the influence of Schlegel, and Henriette under that of Schleiermacher, Rahel was drawn particularly to the philosophy of Fichte.[24] Together with Herz and her cousin, Sara Grotthuis née Meyer, she hosted one of the famous Berlin salons of the 1800s. Her home became the meeting place for same personalities, including Schlegel, Schelling, Schleiermacher, Alexander and Wilhelm von Humboldt, Ludwig Tieck, Jean Paul, and Friedrich Gentz. Their salon gained influence through their friendship with Goethe.[25] Rahel is the subject of a famous biography, Rahel Varnhagen: The Life of a Jewess (1957), by Hannah Arendt.

In 1814, Rahel Varnhagen married the biographer Karl August Varnhagen von Ense (1785 – 1858) in Berlin, after having converted to Christianity, and established her “second salon,” which attracted even more guests than her first.[26] Ense carried on an extensive correspondence with Alexander von Humboldt. Ense’s sister was the poet Rosa Maria Assing, whose friends included Amalie Schoppe, German author Fanny Tarnow, and banker David Veit (1771 – 1814), brother of Simon Veit. In 1805, Fanny Tarnow began publishing her journals anonymously and made contact with cultural figures including Julius Eduard Hitzig, and Friedrich de la Motte Fouqué. From 1816 to 1818, Fanny lived with a childhood friend in Saint Petersburg, where she met Friedrich Maximilian von Klinger (1752 – 1831) was a German dramatist and novelist, and a childhood friend of Goethe.[27] Klinger’s play Sturm und Drang (1776) gave its name to the Sturm und Drang artistic epoch. Klinger was the cousin of Heinrich Philipp Bossler, who is known as the authorized original publisher of Haydn, Mozart and Beethoven. Klinger often closely associated with Jakob Michael Reinhold Lenz (1751 – 1792), a Baltic German writer of the Sturm und Drang movement. Goethe became Lenz’s literary idol, and through him he made contact with Herder and Lavater, with whom he corresponded.

Julius Eduard Hitzig was much involved in the Berlin literary life of his period, notably in connection with the salon of Rahel Varnhagen. In collaboration with Varnhagen von Ense, in 1803 he founded the Berliner Musenalmanach, the publication in which his first verses appeared. From 1816 to 1818, Rahel Varnhagen’s sister Rosa Maria Assing, who was a friend of Fanny Tarnow, who, lived with a childhood friend in Saint Petersburg, where she met August von Kotzebue, who was also a friend of Hitzig and E.T.A. Hoffmann.[28] In 1776, the young Kotzebue acted alongside Goethe in the latter’s play Die Geschwister when it premiered in Weimar. The following year, he enrolled at the University of Jena to study legal science. Kotzebue was linked with the publication of a controversial dramatic satire, Doktor Bahrdt mit der eisernen Stirn (“Doctor Bahrdt with the Iron Brow”), which appeared in 1790, under the name of Knigge, a leading member of the Illuminati. The principal characters, including Bahrdt, Joachim Heinrich Camp, Georg Lichtenberg and Nicolai, plot to destroy the career of J.G. Zimmerman, a friend of Moses Mendelssohn, and engage in various obscene sexual acts. Kotzebue denied authorship, even when the police began to investigate the matter.[29] Kotzebue’s uncle was Illuminati member Johann Karl August Musäus, whose Nachgelassene Schriften he edited.[30]

 

Sing-Akademie

The Mendelssohns and the Itzigs, including members of the Hamburg Temple and the Asiatic Brethren, contributed to reviving the music of Johann Sebastian Bach (1685 – 1750)—who was born in Eisenach—and to further the work of the masters of German Classical music composition, including Beethoven. At the time, Bach’s music was rarely performed in public, and very few of his works had been printed during his lifetime. Bach was court composer to Augustus III of Poland, who was Jacob Frank’s godfather at his baptism, and for whom Baron von Hund, founder of the Strict Observance, served as Intimate Counselor.[31] Moses Mendelssohn, who was a passionate lover of music, studied piano with Johann Philipp Kirnberger (1721 –1783), one of Bach’s close disciples, who was then the court musician of Princess Amalia of Prussia, the sister of Frederick the Great. Leah Mendelssohn received piano lessons from Kirnberger, and taught her son Felix Mendelssohn, who converted to Christianity, and became one of the principal composers of the first phase of Romanticism, along with Berlioz, Chopin and Liszt.

One of the hymns of Johann Jakob Schütz, cousin of Andreae, author of the Rosicrucian manifestos, was reworked by Johann Sebastian Bach as a movement in BWV 117.[32] Schütz was a close friend of the Kabbalist Knorr von Rosenroth, and of Johann Jacob Zimmermann, whose pupil, Johannes Kelpius, established the Rosicrucian colony in Philadelphia with the help of Benjamin Furly.[33] Furly was the leader of the Lantern, which included Lady Conway, John Locke, and Adam Boreel, a friend of Rabbi Templo, Menasseh ben Israel and Peter Serrarius, who kept the members of the Hartlib Circle of Rosicrucians informed on the mission of Shabbetai Zevi.[34] Schütz was also a close friend of Philipp Jakob Spener, the founder of Pietism and the teacher of Count Zinzendorf.[35]

As a young girl, Itzig’s daughter Sara Itzig Levy was a highly talented harpsichordist and the favorite student of Bach’s eldest son, Wilhelm Friedemann Bach (1710 – 1784), and later became his most significant patron. Sarah was also a student of Moses Mendelssohn and, after her marriage to the banker Samuel Salomon Levy (1760 – 1806) in 1783, an admirer and patron of Wilhelm’s brother Carl Philipp Emanuel Bach, and became the patron of his widow. Bach’s influential “Essay on the true art of playing keyboard instruments,” would be studied by Haydn, Mozart and Beethoven, among others.[36] Sara commissioned a bust of C.P.E. Bach which was placed in the concert hall of the Royal Theater in Berlin. Berlin’s most important musicians and scholars frequented her salon, including Friedrich Schleiermacher, August Adolph von Hennings, Heinrich Steffens and Bettina von Arnim, who had an affair with Franz Liszt.[37] Bettina was the sister of Clemens Brentano, who along with her husband Achim von Arnim, was part of Madame de Staël’s Coppet Group and who were identified with her by the French imperial police as a member of the Illuminati.[38] At the soirées in her salon, the music of Johann Sebastian Bach was played, which was no longer fashionable in those years. She herself sat at the piano and, accompanied by an orchestra, only played works by the Bach family.[39]

In 1791, Karl Friedrich Christian Fasch (1736 – 1800), began service at the court of Frederick the Great of Prussia, where he served as deputy to Court harpsichordist C.P.E. Bach, founded the Berliner Sing-Akademie, which for several decades was supported financially by the Mendelssohns and Itzigs, and played a crucial role in reviving Bach’s music. In honor of Moses Mendelssohn, Fasch composed musical settings of Mendelssohn’s texts and translations. Both Kirnberger and Fasch were the music teachers of Karl Friedrich Zelter (1758  – 1832), a friend of Goethe. From Sara, Zelter received some valuable manuscripts of Bach family compositions as a gift. Sara’s sister, Fanny von Arnstein gave Mozart a copy of Mendelssohn’s Phädon while he was writing The Abduction from the Seraglio. At the time, Mozart was lodging in the same house in Vienna as the Arnsteins. Fanny’s sister Cecilia Eskeles maintained close friendship to the Wilhelm and Alexander von Humboldt and Goethe.

Like her sister Sara, Fanny also promoted classical music. In 1811, she was the creator of the “Society of Music Lovers,” a charitable organization which regularly sponsored public Classical music concerts. The society included the financial support and collaboration of several women members of the nobility, including Princess Maria Theresia of Thurn and Taxis (1794 – 1874), the granddaughter of Karl Anselm of Thurn and Taxis, and a member of the Order of the Golden Fleece, whose banker was Amschel Rothschild, and Countess Dietrichstein. Beethoven was commissioned to write the “Mass in C,” in Princess Maria Theresia’s honor. Countess Dietrichstein’s husband, Count Moritz von Dietrichstein (1775 – 1864), was “Music Count to the Court,” the director of the imperial court musical organization, and a close friend of Beethoven’s friend Count Moritz Lichnowsky. Bernhard Eskeles, was Beethoven’s friend and banker. As a mark of their friendship, in 1823, Beethoven composed a lied (“art song”) for Cecilia. The composition for voice and pianoforte was set to the beginning of the last stanza of their mutual friend Goethe’s Das Göttliche (“The Divine”)—Edel sei der Mensch, Hulfreich und gut! (“Let man be noble, helpful, and good!”).

It was Sara Itzig Levy who recommended to her niece, Leah Mendelssohn, that Zelter become her son Felix’s music teacher. Leah was committed to new performances of the music of J.S. Bach and his sons and was committed to disseminating the music of Mozart, Haydn and Beethoven and supporting musicians who played their works. From 1819 onwards, under her direction, the so-called musikalischen Winterabenden (“musical winter evenings”), and the family tradition of celebrating birthdays with music, developed into larger musical events, or soirées, in the Mendelssohns’ house. From 1821, the Sonntagsmusiken (“Sunday music”) were also introduced. They offered her son Felix the opportunity to perform his Singspiele, symphonies and concerts together with the music of Mozart and Beethoven with the Royal Court Orchestra.

The musical experiences and events in the Mendelssohns’ house found their way into Leah’s extensive correspondence with her cousin, Fanny’s daughter Henriette von Pereira-Arnstein (1780 – 1859), which also influenced Viennese musical life. After her mother’s death, Henriette Pereira continued the tradition of literary-musical salons introduced by her mother on a smaller scale. She was in contact with Joseph Haydn.[40] She hosted important artists such as Beethoven, Liszt, Felix Mendelssohn, Grillparzer, Stifter, Brentano and Theodor Körner (1791 – 1813), a friend of Wilhelm von Humboldt and Friedrich Schlegel, who wrote the song cycle Leier und Schwert (“Lyre and Sword”) for her. Theodor’s father, Gottfried Körner (1756 – 1831), was a friend of Schiller. Henriette Herz spent much time in the Körner household in Dresden,[41] which according to Robert Riggs:

…became a literary and musical salon. Plays and essays were read; Singspiele and chamber music were performed; and lectures on art were given. Guests and participants included Johann Gottfried von Herder, Goethe, Wilhelm von Humboldt, the Schlegel brothers, Ludwig Tieck, Novalis, and the musicians Johann Naumann, Johann Hiller, Karl Zelter, Mozart, and Weber.[42]

 

In 1821, Zelter introduced his friend Goethe to the twelve-year-old Felix. Goethe, now in his seventies, was very impressed with the child, comparing him with Mozart.[43] In 1823, Felix gained a complete manuscript of the Bach’s St. Matthew Passion, which grand-mother Babette Itzig Solomon was able to secure from Zelter. Felix’s 1829 performance of St Matthew Passion at the Sing-Akademie, under Zelter’s auspices, sparked a general revival of Bach’s works. Mendelssohn’s two large biblical oratorios, St. Paul in 1836 and Elijah in 1846, are greatly influenced by J. S. Bach. The libretto for St. Paul was written by Julius Schubring (1806 – 1889), a student of Friedrich Schleiermacher. According to Melvin Berger, although raised a Protestant, Felix “was never fully accepted as a Christian by his contemporaries, nor was he ever fully cut off from his Judaic heritage.”[44] Therefore:

Musicians have long debated whether Mendelssohn’s three major choral works reflect his religious duality—born into what had been a Jewish family, but living as a Lutheran. The main subject of St. Paul is a figure from the New Testament who, although born as a Jew, became an early leader of Christianity. The First Walpurgis Night sympathetically describes pagan rituals and presents Christians in a poor light. And Elijah probes the wisdom of an Old Testament prophet from Israel.[45]

Felix’s Die erste Walpurgisnacht (“The First Walpurgis Night”), a setting for chorus and orchestra of a ballad by Goethe described pagan rituals of the Druids in the Harz mountains involving a masquerade of the Devil, spirits, and demons to frighten the occupying Christians. This score was described by the scholar Heinz-Klaus Metzger as a “Jewish protest against the domination of Christianity.”[46] Felix completed an initial version of the work in 1831, which was first performed at his parents’ home after Goethe’s death the following year, and then publicly in 1833 at the Sing-Akademie in Berlin with himself conducting.


[1] Friedrich Schlegel: Philosophische Fragmente. Zweyte Epoche. II, Zur Rhetorik und Poesie 1799 fin; cited in Kremer. “Kabbalistische Signaturen. Sprachmagie als Brennpunkt romantischer Imagination bei E. T. A. Hoffmann und Achim von Arnim,” p. 201.

[2] Paul Oskar Kristeller. Studies in Renaissance Thought and Letters. Ed. di Storia e Letteratura (1993), p. 599.

[3] Braiterman, “The Emergence of Modern Religion,” p. 12.

[4] Ibid., p. 13.

[5] Ibid., p. 13.

[6] E.T.A. Hoffmann. (1810). “Recension: Sinfonie pour 2 Violons, 2 Violes, Violoncelle e Contre-Violon, 2 Flûtes, petite Flûte, 2 Hautbois, 2 Clarinettes, 2 Bassons, Contrabasson, 2 Cors, 2 Trompettes, Timbales et 3 Trompes, composée et dediée etc. par Louis van Beethoven. à Leipsic, chez Breitkopf et Härtel, Oeuvre 67. No. 5. des Sinfonies. (Pr. 4 Rthlr. 12 Gr.).” Allgemeine musikalische Zeitung 12: 40 (4 July), cols. 630–42 [Der Beschluss folgt.]; 12, no. 41 (11 July), cols. 632.

[7] Eric Werner. “New Light on the Family of Felix Mendelssohn.” Hebrew Union College Annual, Vol. 26 (1955), p. 546.

[8] Michael A. Meyer. The Origins of the Modern Jew: Jewish Identity and European Culture in Germany, 1749-1824 (Wayne State University Press, 1979), p. 85.

[9] McIntosh. Rose Cross and the Age of Reason, p. 166.

[10] Hilde Spiel. Fanny von Arnstein: Daughter of the Enlightenment. (trans.) Christine Shuttleworth (New York: New Vessel Press, 2013).

[11] McIntosh. Rose Cross and the Age of Reason, p. 166.

[12] Michael K. Silber. “The Making of Habsburg Jewry in the Long Eighteenth Century.” In Jonathan Karp & Adam Sutcliffe (eds.). The Cambridge History of Judaism. Volume 7: The Early Modern World, 1500–1815 (Cambridge University Press, 2017), p. 782.

[13] Fronmüllerchronik (1871), p. 179.

[14] John Isbell. “Introduction,” Germaine De Stael, Corinne, or, Italy, trans. Sylvia Raphael (Oxford: Worlds Classics, 1998), p. ix.

[15] Petra Wilhelmy-Dollinger, in “Berlin Salons: Late Eighteenth to Early Twentieth Century.” Jewish Women’s Archive. Retrieved from https://jwa.org/encyclopedia/article/berlin-salons-late-eighteenth-to-early-twentieth-century

[16] Ibid.

[17] “Arnstein, Fanny von (1758–1818).” Women in World History: A Biographical Encyclopedia. Retrieved from https://www.encyclopedia.com/women/encyclopedias-almanacs-transcripts-and-maps/arnstein-fanny-von-1758-1818

[18] Hilde Spiel. Fanny von Arnstein: Daughter of the Enlightenment (trans.) Christine Shuttleworth (New York: New Vessel Press, 2013), p. 191

[19] David E. Cartwright. Schopenhauer: A Biography (Cambridge University Press, 2010), p. 232.

[20] Martin Dönike. Altertumskundliches Wissen in Weimar (Berlin, Boston: De Gruyter, 2013).

[21] Cartwright. Schopenhauer, p. 232.

[22] Barbara Hahn. “Henriette Herz.” Jewish Women’s Archive. Retrieved from https://jwa.org/encyclopedia/article/herz-henriette

[23] Meyer. The Origins of the Modern Jew, p. 93.

[24] Ibid., p. 110.

[25] Ibid., p. 85.

[26] Petra Wilhelmy-Dollinger, in “Berlin Salons: Late Eighteenth to Early Twentieth Century.” Jewish Women’s Archive. Retrieved from https://jwa.org/encyclopedia/article/berlin-salons-late-eighteenth-to-early-twentieth-century

[27] Dagmar Paulus. “Femininity, Nation, and Nature: Fanny Tarnow’s Letters to Friends from a Journey to Petersburg (1819).” Nationalism before the Nation State (Brill, 2020), pp. 76–96.

[28] Ibid.

[29] Matthew H. Birkhold. Characters Before Copyright: The Rise and Regulation of Fan Fiction in Eighteenth-Century Germany (Oxford University Press, 2019), p. 157.

[30] Hugh Chisholm (ed.). “Tieck, Johann Ludwig.” Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 26 11th ed. (Cambridge University Press, 1911), p. 962.

[31] Picknett & Prince. The Sion Revelation, p. 319.

[32] Richard Stokes. The complete church and secular cantatas (Long Barn Books, 2000). p. vii.

[33] Elizabeth W. Fisher. “‘Prophesies and Revelations’: German Cabbalists in Early Pennsylvania.” The Pennsylvania Magazine of History and Biography, 109:3 (1985), p. 305.

[34] Mark Greengrass, Michael Leslie & Timothy Raylor, editors. Samuel Hartlib and Universal Reformation: Studies in Intellectual Communication (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1994) p. 134.

[35] Elizabeth W. Fisher. “‘Prophesies and Revelations’: German Cabbalists in Early Pennsylvania.” The Pennsylvania Magazine of History and Biography, 109:3 (1985), p. 305.

[36] Guy Dammann. “CPE Bach: like father, like son.” The Guardian (February 24, 2011).

[37] Nigel Cawthorne. The Mammoth Book of Sex Scandals (Little, Brown Book Group, 2012).

[38] le Forestier. Les Illuminés de Bavière et la franc-maçonnerie allemande, p. 709.

[39] Petra Wilhelmy-Dollinger. Die Berliner Salons. Mit historisch-literarischen Spaziergängen (Berlin u. a. 2000).

[40] “Pereira, Pereira-Arnstein, Henriette, Henrietta (Jette) (Judith) Freiin von, geb. von Arnstein.” Europäische Instrumentalistinnen des 18. und 19. Jahrhunderts. Sophie Drinker Institut. Retrieved from https://www.sophie-drinker-institut.de/pereira-henriette

[41] “Kulturgeschichte” Zeno. Retrieved from http://www.zeno.org/Kulturgeschichte/M/Herz,+Henriette/Ihr+Leben+und+ihre+Erinnerungen/Biographie

[42] Robert Riggs. “‘On the Representation of Character in Music’: Christian Gottfried Körner’s Aesthetics of Instrumental Music.” The Musical Quarterly, 81: 4 (Winter 1997), p. 600.

[43] R. Larry Todd. Mendelssohn – A Life in Music (New York: Oxford University Press, 2003), p. 89.

[44] Melvin Berger. Guide to Choral Masterpieces: A Listener’s Guide (New York: Anchor Books, 1993), p. p. 199.

[45] Ibid., p. pp. 207–208.

[46] R. Larry Todd. Mendelssohn – A Life in Music (Oxford; New York: Oxford University Press, 2003), pp. 269–270.

Zionism