23. Islam and the West

Limits to Growth

At the same time as the Club of Rome published the report Limits to Growth, the United Nations Conference on the Human Environment took place in the summer of 1972 in Stockholm, Sweden. This was the first international conference on environmental issues, and it resulted in the founding of the UN Environment Programme (UNEP). The conference was led by Canadian diplomat Maurice Strong (1929 – 2015), a Canadian oil and mineral businessman and a diplomat who served as Under-Secretary-General of the United Nations, and leader of the Bahai movement in North America.[1] Strong, a member of the Club of Rome and the Aspen Institute, a director and vice-president of the World Wide Fund (WWF) for Nature in Switzerland; creator of the Canadian International Development Agency (CIDA), as well as Secretary General of the United Nations Conference on the Human Environment, and then the first executive director of the United Nations Environment Programme. In the 1960s, Strong had become president of the huge Montreal energy conglomerate and oil company known as Power Corporation, then owned by the influential Paul Desmarais. Prime ministers such as Club of Rome member Pierre Trudeau, Jean Chretien, Paul Martin and Brian Mulroney all had ties to the Power Corporation at one time or another. Trudeau appointed Strong as CEO of Petro-Canada from 1976 to 1978. Strong first met David Rockefeller in 1947, and they developed what David would call a “strong working relationship.”[2] Strong also took a position as trustee of the Rockefeller Foundation which supplied a grant for the running of the Stockholm Conference office.[3]

In September 1975, the Aspen Institute and the Pahlavi Foundation of Iran held a symposium in Persepolis, Iran, attended by more than 100 scholars, government officials, and corporate executives from throughout the world. The public side of the  transactions was published years later under the title of Iran: Past, Present, and Future. In the behind-the-scenes discussion, the plans for reversing the Shah’s industrialization program were mapped out. Attending the Persepolis symposium were at least a dozen members of the Club of Rome, including its chairman, Aurelio Peccei, American diplomat Sol Linowitz, Jacques Freymond, and Robert O. Anderson and Harlan Cleveland, both Aspen Institute officials and associates of the Club of Rome in the United States. Harlan Cleveland (1918 – 2008) served as Lyndon B. Johnson's U.S. Ambassador to NATO from 1965 to 1969. Sol Linowitz (1913 – 2005) was a career diplomat, lawyer, and one time chairman of Xerox. Linowitz helped negotiate the return of the Panama Canal to Panama under the direction of President Jimmy Carter. In 1964, Linowitz joined David Rockefeller to launch the International Executive Service Corps.[4] Freymond was director of the Geneva Graduate Institute, is a graduate-level research university founded in 1927 by two senior League of Nations officials and dedicated to producing “knowledge and expertise on international relations, development issues, global challenges and governance.”[5] The Geneva Graduate Institute, which attracted economists like Ludwig von Mises and Friedrich Hayek, become known as a rallying point for neoliberal scholars.[6]

Of concern at the Persepolis symposium was the massive introduction of oil money following the quadrupling of oil prices in 1973, resulting in a “big push” that enabled the Iranian economy to achieve unprecedented growth.[7] However, as summarized by Robert Dreyfus, “The Aspen Institute session stressed a single theme:  modernization and industry undermine the “spiritual, nonmaterial values of ancient Iranian society, and these values must be preserved above all else.”[8] Ehsan Naraghi (1926 – 2012), Iranian sociologist who had attended Dar ul-Funun and became an adviser to  Farah Pahlavi, told the conference:

 

Universities and research centers in the West have  all based their studies of development upon a linear,  Westernizing conception of progress… Human sciences, founded on rational objectivity, are today suffering setbacks and defeats. Is it not important that, having exalted rationality to ensure human happiness, we should now be induced to invent a special discipline—psychoanalysis—to cure the ills arising from an overrationally organized life that is deprived of its basic relationship with the nonrational?... Why should cultures like ours, in which man is considered in all his aspects, be deprived of their substance by following a so-called rational course at the end of which lies the vast expanse of the non-rational?… The people have needs and aspirations that are not merely material… The intrusion of machines into the traditional system may well jeopardize  this creative life.[9]

 

In 1977, expanding on their Limits to Growth agenda, the Club of Rome and the Muslim Brotherhood created an organization to pursue to the retardation of Iran’s industry, called Islam and the West. Headquartered in Geneva, Islam and the West came under the guidance of Muslim Brotherhood leader and former Syrian Prime Minister Marouf Dawalibi, in addition to Aurelio Peccei and Lord Caradon, Permanent Representative of the United Kingdom to the United Nations. One of the sponsors of Islam and the West was the prestigious International Federation of Institutions of Advanced Studies, whose funders included, in addition to Aurelio Peccei, Prince Bernhard and fellow Bilderberger Robert O. Anderson.[10] The Protestant church’s liaison to Islam and the West was Rev. John B. Taylor, who was director of Islamic studies at Selly Oak Colleges, Birmingham, England, from 1966 to 1973.[11] Taylor was also Director of the Program on Dialogue with People of Living Faiths and Ideologies at the World Council of Churches (WCC), whose goal was to form One World Church.[12] To justify its attack on “Western” science and technological progress, Islam and the West declared:

 

We have to return to a more spiritual conception of life. . . . The first lesson of Islamic science is its insistence on the notion of a balanced equilibrium which would not destroy the ecological order of the environment, on which collective survival finally depends.[13]

 

In 1978, Ismail al-Faruqi (1921 – 1986), a widely recognized Muslim intellectual closely connected with the Muslim Brotherhood, became Vice-President of the Inter-Religious Peace Colloquium (IRPC), set up by Cyrus Vance and Sol Linowitz. Started in 1975, the IRPC, which later became known as the Muslim-Jewish Christian Conference (MJCC), lasted until 1980.[14] Faruqi replaced Cyrus Vance, who left to become Secretary of State for the United States, and co-wrote the forward to one of its publications.[15] Officers of the IRPC included Benjamin J. Gremillion and Cynthia Clark Wedel of the World Council of Churches (WCC), a worldwide Christian inter-church organization founded in 1948 to work for the cause of ecumenism; Henry Siegman, former National Director of the American Jewish Congress (AJC); Matthew Rosenhaus, an honorary vice chairman of the Anti-Defamation League (ADL).[16] The board of directors included Maurice Strong, Philip Klutznick, AJC president, and former president of B’nai B’rith, who would serve as U.S. Secretary of Commerce from under President Jimmy Carter; American economist Henry Schultz; Simeon Adebo, a Nigerian diplomat who served as United Nations Under-Secretary General; Dr. Muhammad Abdul Rauf, Director of the Islamic Center in New York and then Director of the Islamic Center in Washington from 1970-80. Rauf was later invited back to Malaysia by then Prime Minister Dr. Mahathir Mohamad to become the first Rector of the International Islamic University of Malaysia (IIU) from 1983-84.[17]

 

Mosque in Munich

Faruqi was part of a group who met at the First International Conference on Islamization of Knowledge, for the purpose of rebuilding the Muslim Brotherhood, in 1977 in Lugano, an hour’s travel from Ascona, and where Seyyed Hossein Nasr had participated in the Ticinian Institute for High Studies (ITAS), between 1970 and 1973, which included several Eranos speakers. The meeting in Lugano was coordinated by Muslim Brotherhood members Youssef Nada and Ghaleb Himmat, who had taken over leadership from the CIA’s mosque in Munich, led by Said Ramadan.[18] In Geneva, the Said Ramadan set up the Institute for Islamic Studies. Ramadan was living in Sudan until 1959, when he finally decided to move his family to Geneva, where he developed a friendship with François Genoud.[19] CIA officer Robert Dreher arranged for Jordan to provide Ramadan a diplomatic passport who even “sent him to West Germany as Ambassador-at-large.”[20] As detailed by Ian Johnson, the CIA connived to have Said Ramadan take over a Munich mosque project headed by ex-Nazi and Gerhard von Mende, Alfred Rosenburg’s specialist on minorities in the Soviet Union. During World War II, von Mende, as head of the Caucasus division at the Ostministerium, the office overseeing the Nazi-occupied eastern territories, pioneered the use of the minority populations of the Soviet empire, many of them Muslim, into a fifth column.

Following Germany’s defeat, von Mende was hired by the US, where his many Muslim agents went to work for Radio Liberty. Part of this operation was the creation the American Committee for Liberation from Bolshevism (AMCOMLIB). Its main purpose was to run Radio Liberty, which was beamed into the Soviet Union, but the US government misled listeners and supporters in the US into thinking it was run by émigrés and prominent journalists instead of the CIA. It was AMCOMLIB CIA officers Eric Kuniholm and Robert Dreher who provided funding for Said Ramadan to spearhead their activities in Munich. In 1958, those loyal to von Mende had decided to build a mosque in Munich, to become the Munich Islamic Center. However, the project was soon hijacked by the CIA, who intended to have it instead headed by Said Ramadan. Through CIA sponsorship, the mosque became the headquarters of the Brotherhood in Europe. Its influence spread out all over Germany, then Europe, and even the U.S., spawning a network of related Islamic centers.

The Munich mosque opened in 1973. However, Ramadan was eventually forced out. Two members of the new Saudi-Muslim Brotherhood alliance were put in charge. These were primarily two individuals, who lived in an Italian enclave of Switzerland, called Campione d’Italia, near Lake Lugano: Ghaleb Himmat, who was head of the mosque from about 1972 to 2001, and Youssef Nada.[21] As a young man, Nada, one of the international leaders of the Muslim Brotherhood, had joined the armed branch of the “secret apparatus” of the Muslim Brotherhood, and then was recruited by German military intelligence. When Mufti al Husseini had to flee Germany in 1945, as the Nazi defeat loomed, Youssef Nada is rumored to have been personally involved in arranging his escape through the SS via Switzerland back to Egypt and then Palestine.[22] Nada and Husseini also shared mutual friendships in Francois Genoud and Ahmed Huber, member of the Avalon Gemeinschaft. Huber claimed that he originally converted at the Geneva Islamic Center, established by Said Ramadan.[23]

Nada was also close associate of the notorious Yusuf al-Qaradawi (1926 – 2022), a graduate of Al-Azhar, was considered one of the proponents of the Sahwa in the 1970s.[24] Qaradawi’s influences included Ibn Taymiyah, Ibn Qayyim, Rashid Rida, Hassan al-Banna, Abul Hasan Ali Hasani Nadwi, Maududi and Naeem Siddiqui. Qaradawi wrote of al Banna as “brilliantly radiating, as if his words were revelation or live coals from the light of prophecy.”[25] Another of his mentors was Guénon’s protégé, Abdel Halim Mahmoud. Qaradawi, a long-standing member of the Muslim Brotherhood, having worked directly with Hassan al Banna, twice declined offers to lead the organization, but claims to be accepted by them as their Mufti. Qaradawi published more than 120 books, including The Lawful and the Prohibited in Islam and Islam: The Future Civilization. He also received eight international prizes for his contributions to Islamic scholarship, and was considered one of the most influential Islamic scholars living.

 

Meta-Religion 

In 1977, Nada and Himmat and the Muslim Student Association (MSA) coordinated the First International Conference on Islamization of Knowledge in Lugano, attended by Qaradawi, as well as Dr. Jamal Barzinji and Ahmed Totonji, Khurshid Ahmad, and many others.[26] Ahmad’s father, Nazir Ahmad, served as counselor to the Muslim League in Delhi, and was a close friend of Maududi, who made a deep impression on Rahman.[27] While attending the Government College in Karachi, Ahmad became active in the Islami Jamiat-i-Talaba (IJT; Islamic Student Association), the student wing of Maududi’s Jamaat-e-Islami. Ahmad was also impressed by Islam at the Crossroads, written by Leopold Weiss, the Jewish convert who took the name Muhammad Asad, and became a friend of Muhammad Iqbal and an influential figure in the newly independent Pakistan.[28] Ahmad helped organize and served on the executive council of the Islamic Council of Europe, was a research scholar at the University of Leicester, and established the Islamic Foundation in Leicester, which was inspired by the ideals Jamaat-e-Islami.[29]

After graduating high school in Baghdad in 1958, Totonji first studied in England and in 1963 was awarded a scholarship from Penn State in the United States for Masters and Ph.D. studies in Petroleum Engineering. Ahmad also became a member of the Islamic Center of Munich.[30] In 1963, Totonji and others helped found the MSA, widely regarded as the first Brotherhood organization in the United States. The initial leadership primarily came from Arabic-speaking and Urdu-speaking members, with guidance from students of the Egyptian-based Muslim Brotherhood and Maududi’s Pakistan-based Jamaat-e-Islami.[31] The Muslim World League provided early funding for the groups.[32] The first MSA National chapters were formed in 1963 at the University of Michigan in Ann Arbor and at the University of Illinois at Urbana–Champaign (UIUC) by international students.[33]

In 1969, Totonji founded the International Islamic Federation of Student Organizations (IIFSO), to “serve, develop, integrate, and represent the Islamic student organizations worldwide while building bridges with other cultures in order to participate in building a brighter future for Muslim youth,” and “specializes in ideologically oriented works by Abul Ala Maududi, Sayyid Qutb, Muhammad Qutb and Abul Hasan Ali Nadwi, among others.”[34] The IIFSO was established at the Bilal Mosque of the Islamic Center in Aachen, Germany, founded by Issam al-Attar, the head of the Syrian branch of the Muslim Brotherhood, and a member of the Islamic Center of Munich.[35] Maududi, Moroccan revolutionary Allal al-Fassi (1910 – 1974), and Mohammad Natsir (1908 – 1993), Indonesia’s fifth Prime Minister, all expressed their support.[36] Al-Fassi was a Salafist who founded the nationalist Independence Party that led an anticolonial struggle against colonialism in Morocco, and an ally of Shakib Arslan, who was considered the “prime mover” of' Moroccan anticolonialism.[37] The second Secretary General of IIFSO was Hisham Altalib, who Nada had proposed in 1978 as a voting member of the Islamic Center of Munich, even though he lived in the United States.[38] Nearly every major Muslim youth organization in the world became affiliated with the IIFSO. [39] Since 1977, IIFSO joined the United Nations as an NGO with a special consultative status in the economic and social council, was invited to international youth conferences held in Spain under the aegis of UNESCO.[40]

The group in 1977 in Lugano created the International Institute of Islamic Thought (IIIT), for the purpose of rebuilding the Muslim Brotherhood. In 1978, the group met in Saudi Arabia and decided to locate IIIT in the United States. Ismail al-Faruqi was instructed to open the center in Pennsylvania, near Temple University, where he founded and chaired the Islamic Studies program, and co-founded the American branch of IIIT with Anwar Ibrahim, based in Herndon, Virginia.[41] Faruqi was described as “one of the most prolific and influential Muslim scholars of the modern age,[42] and “the first and foremost Muslim scholar to engage in the area of modern academic study, teaching and research of religion in the modern age.”[43] After obtaining a bachelor’s degree in the humanities from the American University of Beirut in 1942, he was appointed a Registrar of Cooperative Societies under the British Mandate government in Jerusalem. In 1945, he was appointed district governor of Galilee, Palestine. A file sent by the Director of the FBI on July 18, 1951, reported that Faruqi “stated that he felt it would have been better had the Germans won World War II and further that he hoped the Communists would win the present struggle and that he would do all in his power to see that this is done.”[44] Another FBI file, dated the same day, shared the opinion of an informant “that Faruqi may have been an active Nazi during the recent Hitler period,” but that “FARUQI in normal conversation, is Fascistic rather than Communistic,” and added that he enjoyed dating girls around campus and would “publicly boast of his conquests.”[45]

In 1951, Faruqi earned a second master’s degree in philosophy from Harvard University, and a PhD from the Department of Philosophy of Indiana University in 1952. He also studied Islam at al-Azhar between 1954–1958.[46] The first phase of his thought is epitomized in his book On Arabism: Urubah and Religion. Al-Faruqi’s early intellectual focus centered on Urubah (Arabism), which he argued was the core identity uniting all Muslims into a single community of believers (Ummah), and viewed Arabic as essential for fully understanding Islamic teachings, as it is the language of the Quran. As summarized by Imtiyaz Yusuf:

 

For al-Faruqi, monotheistic Arabism was the essence of Semitism, comprising the traditions of Judaism, Christianity, and Islam, which together constituted “the Arab stream of being” (al Faruqi, On Arabism, 210). He saw Arabism as the source of Muslim civilization and Islamic monotheism as the gift of the Arab stream of consciousness to humanity.[47]

 

In 1958, Faruqi joined the Institute of Islamic Studies at McGill University. At McGill, Faruqi befriended Fazlur Rahman (1919 – 1988), a Pakistani Islamic philosopher who promoted Ijtihad, and whose work is featured in Ismaili publications.[48] One fellow researcher described Fazlur Rahman as “probably the most learned of the major Muslim thinkers in the second half of the twentieth century, in terms of both classical Islam and Western philosophical and theological discourse.”[49] Nevertheless, his ideas drew strong criticism from conservative scholars.[50] Intellectuals like Rahman are not legal scholars in the traditional sense, but philosophers, who have to raise the conversation to passing comments about methodology of Islamic jurisprudence in general, and at a very high level, without the ability to challenge the rudiments of the law on specifics. In Islam and Modernity: Transformation of an Intellectual Tradition, Rahman traces the decline of the Muslim world to the Closing of the Doors of Ijtihad, arguing that there is an “immediate imperative” to reconstruct a new methodology to permit Muslims reconcile Islam with the demands of the modern world.[51] According to Rahman, as the revelation of the Quran took place “in, although not merely for, a given historical context,” Muslims must isolate that context in order to discover the true meaning which is intended to “outflow through and beyond that given context in history.”[52] Ijtihad, therefore, to Rahman, fulfils the role of contrasting the eternal principles of the Quran with “freshly derived inspiration from revelations.”[53] As he fully explains:

 

…the effort to understand the meaning of a relevant text or precedent in the past, containing a rule, and to alter that rule by extending or restricting or otherwise modifying it in such a manner that a new situation can be subsumed under it by extension.[54]

 

In 1961, Rahman facilitated a two-year appointment for him at the Central Institute of Islamic Research in Karachi, Pakistan. Rahman later recalled that the experience shaped his subsequent theories on comparative religion and meta-religion.[55] Meta-religion, means “beyond religion.”[56] Faruqi sought to find common ground for mutual understanding and interfaith cooperation by evaluating religions by universal standards rather than by comparing them against each other, focusing on universal principles rooted in Fitrah (innate conscience).[57]

In the late 1960’s and early 1970’s, he progressively shifted from Arabism to Islam. An old Christian acquaintance of his once commented that he believed that Islam was in need of a reformation and Faruqi aspired to be its Luther.[58] His course on modern Islam focused on Jamal ud-Din al-Afghani, Muhammad Abduh, Sayyid Ahmad Khan and Muhammad Iqbal.[59] Faruqi was particularly influenced by the Islamic rationalism of Mu’tazili theologians, as well as the Brethren of Sincerity and the Tawheed (“monotheism”) of Mohammed bin Abdul Wahhab, the founder of Wahhabism.[60] Faruqi produced a translation of Abdul Wahhab’s Kitab Al Tawhid (“Book of Monotheism”), published in 1979 under auspices of the IIFSO, produced by the Holy Koran Publishing House in Beirut and Damascus, and printed in Stuttgart, West Germany.[61]  Like ibn Abdul Wahhab, Faruqi was critical of the corruptive effects of Sufism and foreign cultural influences on Islam and was convinced of the need of rooting all Muslim life in Tawhid.[62]

Faruqi is best known in the Muslim world for his contribution to the revival and reform of Islamic thought through “Islamization of Knowledge.”[63] Faruqi attributed the crisis in Muslim society to the bifurcation of traditional and modern secular education, and “called for mastery of both modern and Islamic disciplines to develop a creative synthesis between Islamic tradition and modern knowledge.”[64] Therefore, to Faruqi, Islamization implied that all disciplines, including the humanities, the social and the natural sciences, would need to be rebuilt by lending them an Islamic basis.[65] In other words, Faruqi’s claims were that the problem wasn’t the adoption of Western ideas in Islamic education, but that these ideas hadn’t be “Islamized.”

 

Inter-Religious Peace Colloquium

As explained by Esposito and Voll, in Makers of Contemporary Islam, Faruqi became a “major force” in Islam’s involvement in interfaith dialogue. They add:

 

During the 19705 he established himself as a leading Muslim spokesperson for Islam, one of a handful of senior Muslim scholars (including Fazlur Rah- man and Seyyed Hossein Nasr) known and respected in both Western aca- demic and ecumenical circles. His writings, speeches, and participation and leadership role in interreligious meetings and organizations sponsored by the World Council of Churches, the National Council of Churches, the Vatican, and the Inter-Religious Peace Colloquium (of which he was vice-president from 1977 to 1982) made him the most visible and prolific Muslim contributor to the dialogue of world religions.[66]

 

In 1976, Faruqi’s interest in comparative religious studies and Islam led him to spearhead the creation of the Islamic Studies section of the American Academy of Religion (AAR), the world’s largest association of scholars in the field of religious studies and related topics. Faruqi was invited to participate in a number of prominent inter-faith forums, such as the Inter-Religious Peace Colloquium (IRPC), set up by Cyrus Vance and Sol Linowitz.[67] Faruqi played a central role in establishing of the International Islamic University in Islamabad in 1980, which was an outcome of the 1977 First World Conference on Muslim Education held in Mecca, with the collaboration of Muhammed Qutb.[68] The conference was initiated by Syed Ali Ashraf, chairman of the World Muslim Congress, under the auspices of King Abdulaziz University.[69] The President of the Muslim Congress until 1979 was Hitler’s Mufti, Hajj Amin al-Husseini. The Islamic University in Islamabad was founded in 1980 with funding from within Pakistan and foreign donations from Saudi Arabia. During the 1970s and 1980s, Faruqi was an adviser to Muhammad Zia-ul-Haq’s government of Pakistan (1976–88). Faruqi also visited Malaysia as adviser to the second Mahathir Mohamad government formed in 1982, where his conceptualization of the Islamization of Knowledge project was formalized in the establishment of the International Islamic University Malaysia in 1983.[70] AbuSulayman, attendee of the Lugano conference, and Chairman of IIIT, was the Founding President of the university. Likewise, the Islamization of Knowledge, through the revival and reform of Islamic thought through, were also the objectives of the IIIT.[71]

Signing the incorporation papers for the opening of the IIIT in the US in 1980 was Barzinji. Nada lived in Indianapolis, where Barzinji, Totonji, and the others were turning their student group into a national movement. Just as he had done in Munich, Nada apparently helped organize financing of the Indianapolis headquarters. Another Brotherhood functionary was Hisham Altalib, who became a voting member of the Munich Islamic Center in 1978. By the 1980s, it would form the headquarters of the MSA, the North American Islamic Trust, and the newly created national group, the Islamic Society of North America (ISNA).[72] By 1983, a $21 million headquarters was built for the group on a former farm near Indianapolis, Indiana.[73] Another attendee of the Lugano conference was Taha Jabir Alalwani, founder and chairman of the Fiqh Council of North America, founded in 1986 to develop legal methodologies for adopting Islamic law to life in the West.[74]

In 1989, Amana Publications of Maryland, financed by Saudi Arabia’s Ar-Rajhi banking company, introduced a revised edition of Abdullah Yusuf Ali’s Ismaili-influenced translation of the Quran, featuring revisions and commentary undertaken with the help of the IIIT.[75] In December 1938, Ali helped to open the Al-Rashid Mosque, the third mosque in North America, in Edmonton, Canada. In 1947, he made a failed attempt to return to India after and he returned to London where he became increasingly frail and in isolation. Of no fixed residence, Ali spent most of the last decade of his life either living in the National Liberal Club, in the Royal Commonwealth Society or wandering the streets. On December 9, 1953, Ali was found in a state of bewilderment by the police who took him to Westminster Hospital. He suffered a heart attack the following day at London County Council home for the elderly in Dovehouse Street in Chelsea.[76] The footnoted commentary about Jews was considered so offensive that, in April 2002, it was banned by Los Angeles school district for use at local schools.[77] Kurshid Ahmad and Khurram Murad’s Islamic Foundation of UK released an “English Only” hardback edition in 2005.

 


[1] “It’s your call, Feb. 18, 2014.” News-PressNow. Retrieved from https://www.newspressnow.com/opinion/its_your_call/its-your-call-feb-18-2014/article_1aec56ba-680a-5a46-a6ae-982a94212b4b.html; Dr. Eric T. Karlstrom. “Perspectives on Maurice Strong.” Natural Climate Change (October, 2016). Retrieved from https://naturalclimatechange.org/perspectives-on-maurice-strong/; “About the Author.” Green Agenda. Retrieved from https://web.archive.org/web/20100201092426/http://www.green-agenda.com/gaians.html

[2] Elaine Dewar. Cloak of Green: The Links Between Key Environmental Groups, Government and Big Business (Toronto, James Lorimer & Co., 1995), pp. 260.

[3] Henry Lamb. “Maurice Strong: The new guy in your future!.” West (January, 1991).

[4] Joe Holley. “Former Diplomat Sol Linowitz, 91, Dies.” The Washington Post (March 18, 2005). Retrieved from https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/articles/A47416-2005Mar18.html

[5] “Vision, Mission and Principles | IHEID.” Graduate Institute. Retrieved from https://www.graduateinstitute.ch/charte

[6] “IHEID and Neoliberalism: Reflecting on the Institute’s neoliberal history and practice.” Geneva Graduate Insitute. Retrieved from https://www.graduateinstitute.ch/communications/events/iheid-and-neoliberalism-reflecting-institutes-neoliberal-history-and-practice

[7] Nader Entessar. “Reviewed Work: Iran: Past, Present and Future by Jane W. Jacqz.” The Journal of Developing Areas. 12: 1 (1977), p. 112.

[8] Dreyfuss. Hostage to Khomeini, p. 207.

[9] Dreyfuss. Hostage to Khomeini, p. 207.

[10] Dreyfuss. Hostage to Khomeini, p. 161.

[11] J. B. Taylor. “Book Review: Muslim Peoples: A World Ethnographic Survey.” International Bulletin of Missionary Research, 5: 1 (1981), pp. 39-40.

[12] Ibid.

[13] Dreyfuss. Hostage to Khomeini, p. 211.

[14] Charles D. Fletcher. “Isma’il Al-Faruqi (1921-1986) and Inter-Faith Dialogue: the Man, the Scholar, the Participant.” PhD thesis (McGill University, 2008).

[15] Ibid.

[16] “Matthew Rosenhaus Dead at 68.” Jewish Telegraphic Agency (August 28, 1980).Retrieved from https://www.jta.org/archive/matthew-rosenhaus-dead-at-68

[17] “MD: Islamic Scholar Dr. Muhammad Abdul Rauf Dies.” CAIR. Retrieved from https://www.cair.com/cair_in_the_news/md-islamic-scholar-dr-muhammad-abdul-rauf-dies/

[18] Ibid., p. 190.

[19] Alexandre Del Valle. “RFI : Débat entre Alexandre del Valle et Abdelwahab Meddeb.” Alexandre Del Valle (September 20, 2006).

[20] Johnson. A Mosque in Munich, p. 119.

[21] Ibid., p. 190.

[22] Labeviere. Dollars for Terror. p. 143

[23] “OBITUARY: Swiss Neo-Nazi/Islamist Tied To Muslim Brotherhood Dies At Age 80.” The Global Muslim Brotherhood Daily Watch (May 27, 2008). Retrieved from https://www.globalmbwatch.com/2008/05/27/obituary-swiss-neo-naziislamist-tied-to-muslim-brotherhood-dies-at-age-80/

[24] Bettinia Gräf. “Qaradawi and the Struggle for Modern Islam.” New Lines Magazine (October 25, 2022). Retrieved from https://newlinesmag.com/first-person/qaradawi-and-the-struggle-for-modern-islam/

[25] Yusuf Al-Qaradawi. Ibn al-Qarya wa-l-Kuttab: Malamih Sira wa-Masira, Vol. 1 (Dar al-Shorouq, 2002), p. 245.

[26] Alyssa A. Lappen. “The Muslim Brotherhood in North America.” In Barry Rubin (ed.). Muslim Brotherhood: The Organization and Policies of a Globalist Islamist Movement (Palgrave Macmillan, 2010), 162; Johnson. A Mosque in Munich, pp. 195, 292 n. 195.

[27] John L. Esposito & John O. Voll. Makers of Contemporary Islam (Oxford University Press, 2001), p. 40.

[28] Ibid., p. 40.

[29] Ibid., p. 46.

[30] Johnson. A Mosque in Munich, p. 196.

[31] Noreen S. Ahmed-Ullah, Sam Roe & Laurie Cohen. “A rare look at secretive Brotherhood in America.” Chicago Tribune (September 19, 2004).

[32] Jane El Horr & Sana Saeed. “Campus Radicals: A New Muslim Student Group Tries to Rouse the Moderates.” The Wall Street Journal (June 20, 2008).

[33] Geneive Abdo. Mecca and Main Street: Muslim life in America after 9/11 (Oxford University Press, 2006), pp. 194–198.

[34] “About the Book.” Mapping Shariah. Retrieved from https://mappingsharia.com/?page_id=163

[35] Johnson. A Mosque in Munich, pp. 183, 197.

[36] “The First 20 Years.” IIFSO. Retrieved from https://web.archive.org/web/20240104012356/https://iifso.org/?jet_download=Mjg4NDMxNDgzODUzODQ3MjAyMzIxOTA3NzM4MQ=

[37] Abdelaziz El Amrani. “Anticolonial Resistance in Morocco.” Critical Muslim (Autum 2022). Retrieved from https://criticalmuslim.com/explore/issues/history/anticolonial-resistance-morocco

[38] Johnson. A Mosque in Munich, p. 196.

[39] “The First 20 Years.” IIFSO. Retrieved from https://web.archive.org/web/20240104012356/https://iifso.org/?jet_download=Mjg4NDMxNDgzODUzODQ3MjAyMzIxOTA3NzM4MQ=

[40] IIFSO (August 17, 2024). Retrieved from https://www.facebook.com/photo.php?fbid=912664240887001&id=100064303014851&set=a.561745765978852

[41] Johnson. A Mosque in Munich, p. 196.

[42] Imtiyaz Yusuf. “Ismail Al Faruqi.” In: Kate Fleet, Gudrun Krämer, Denis Matringe, John Nawas & Everett Rowson (eds.). Encyclopaedia of Islam, Vol. 3 (Koninklijke Brill NV, 2022).

[43] Imtiyaz Yusuf. “Ismail Al-Faruqi’s Contribution to the Academic Study of Religion.” Islamic Studies, 53: 1/2 (2014), p. 100.

[44] Office Memorandum (United States Government, July 18, 1951), p. 2. Retrieved from https://ia800505.us.archive.org/22/items/IsmailAl-Faruqi/1344723-0_-_Part_12.pdf

[45] James E. McArdle. Milwaukee: Federal Bureau of Invstigation, July 28/29, 1951), p. 2. Retrieved from https://ia800505.us.archive.org/22/items/IsmailAl-Faruqi/1344723-0_-_Part_7.pdf

[46] Yusuf. “Ismail Al Faruqi.”

[47] Yusuf. “Ismail Al Faruqi.”

[48] “Bio of Tamara Sonn.” Center for Islam and Democracy. Retrieved from https://web.archive.org/web/20070821112756/http://www.islam-democracy.org/sonn_bio.asp

[49] Craig Baxter (ed). Diaries of Field Marshal Mohammad Ayub Khan 1966-1972 (Oxford University Press, Karachi: 2007), p. 562

[50] Tamara Sonn. “Rahman, Fazlur.” In John L. Esposito (ed). The Oxford Encyclopedia of the Modern Islamic World (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1995).

[51] Basit Koshul. “Fazlur Rahman’s ‘Islam and Modernity’ Revisited.” Islamic Studies, 33: 4 (1994), p. 403.

[52] Tamara Sonn. “Fazlur Rahman’s ‘Islamic Methodology.” The Muslim World, 81 (July-October, 1991), p. 220; cited in Basit Koshul. “Fazlur Rahman’s ‘Islam and Modernity’ Revisited.” Islamic Studies, 33: 4 (1994), p. 403.

[53] Rahman. Islam and Modernity, p. 8; cited in Koshul. “Fazlur Rahman’s ‘Islam and Modernity’ Revisited,” p. 403.

[54] Tamara Sonn. “Fazlur Rahman's ‘Islamic Methodology.’ The Muslim World, 81 (July-October, 1991), p. 222; Koshul. “Fazlur Rahman’s ‘Islam and Modernity’ Revisited,” p. 403.

[55] Kate Zebiri. Muslims and Christians Face to Face (Oxford: Oneworld Publications, 1997), p. 90.

[56] Haslina Ibrahim. “Al Faruqi and His Principles of Meta-Religion: The Islamization of Comparative Religion.” Kulliyya Research Bulletin, 3: 1 (March 2008), p. 1. Retrieved from http://irep.iium.edu.my/34578/1/5k%29_Al-Faruqi_and_Meta_religion.pdf

[57] Mohd Farid bin Mohd Sharif & Ahmad Sabri bin Osman. “‘Din Al-Fitrah’ According to al-Faruqi and His Understandings about Religious Pluralism.” International Journal of Academic Research in Business and Social Sciences, 8: 3 (2018), pp. 663–676.

[58] Esposito & Voll. Makers of Contemporary Islam, p. 27–28.

[59] Esposito & Voll. Makers of Contemporary Islam, p. 26.

[60] Yusuf. “Ismail Al Faruqi.”

[61] Ralph Braibanti. “Islam on Its Own Terms: The Contribution of Isma'il al-Faruqi.” Washington Report on Middle East Affairs (August 11, 1986). Retrieved from https://www.wrmea.org/1986-august-11/special-reportislam-on-its-own-terms-the-contribution-of-isma-il-al-faruqi.html

[62] Esposito & Voll. Makers of Contemporary Islam, p. 29.

[63] Yusuf. “Ismail Al Faruqi.”

[64] Muslih. “Ismail Raji al-Faruqi’s thought on Islamization of knowledge and its significance for Islamic education.” IJoReSH : Indonesian Journal of Religion, Spirituality, and Humanity, 2: 2 (2023), p. 184.

[65] Ibid., p. 186.

[66] Esposito & Voll. Makers of Contemporary Islam, p. 33.

[67] Charles D. Fletcher. “Isma’il Al-Faruqi (1921-1986) and Inter-Faith Dialogue: the Man, the Scholar, the Participant.” PhD thesis (McGill University, 2008).

[68] Ghulam Nabi Saqeg. “Islamization of Education.” Conference Report. Sixth Interional Conference on Islamic Eduction (1996). Retrieved from https://hal.science/hal-03469777v1/file/islandora_131825.pdf

[69] Mozammel Haque. “Sheikh Ahmed Salah Jamjoom - Pioneer in Islamic Activities.” Islamic Monitor. Retrieved from http://islamicmonitor.blogspot.com/2010/07/sheikh-ahmed-salah-jamjoom-pioneer-in.html

[70] Yusuf. “Ismail Al Faruqi.”

[71] Ibid.

[72] Johnson. A Mosque in Munich, p. 196.

[73] Alyssa A. Lappen. “The Muslim Brotherhood in North America.” In Barry Rubin (ed.). Muslim Brotherhood: The Organization and Policies of a Globalist Islamist Movement (Palgrave Macmillan, 2010), 162.

[74] Jocelyn Hendrickson. “Law. Minority Jurisprudence.” In John L. Esposito (ed.). The Oxford Encyclopedia of the Islamic World (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2009).

[75] Khaleel Mohammed. “Assessing English Translations of the Qur'an.” Middle East Quarterly, 12: 2 (Spring 2005). Retrieved from https://www.meforum.org/middle-east-quarterly/assessing-english-translations-of-the-quran; Preface. The Meaning of the Holy Qur’an (Amana Publications, 1989).

[76] Khizar Humayun Ansari. “Ali, Abdullah Yusuf (1872–1953), Indian civil servant and Islamic scholar.” Oxford Dictionary of National Biography (October 4, 2012). Retrieved from https://www.oxforddnb.com/view/10.1093/

[77] Mohammed. “Assessing English Translations of the Qur'an.”

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