19. The European Movement

ARAMCO 

A year after Ibn Saud formally united his realm into the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia, with himself as its king, on September 23, 1932, John D. Rockefeller’s Standard Oil of California (SOCAL) negotiated with Jack Philby on behalf of Ibn Saud for a sixty-year contract that allowed California Arabian Standard Oil Company (CASOC), an affiliate, to have exclusive rights to explore and extract oil.[1] Despite the initial breakup of the parent company, former Standard Oil companies would go on to dominate what came to be known as the Seven Sisters, the seven oil companies that controlled the global petroleum industry. They consisted of British Petroleum (BP), Gulf Oil, Texaco, Royal Dutch Shell, and three “baby Standards”: Standard Oil of California (SoCal), later known as Chevron; Standard Oil of New Jersey, which eventually became Exxon; and Standard Oil Company of New York, or Socony, which eventually became Mobil. The last two companies in particular grew significantly over the next few decades.

The extent of the influence of the American petroleum industry and their relationship with Saudi Arabia was enshrined in 1943, when President Roosevelt proclaimed, “I hereby find that the defense of Saudi Arabia is vital to the defense of the United States.”[2] In 1944, the world’s largest oil consortium named the Arabian American Oil Company (ARAMCO) was created in Saudi Arabia. Four giant American oil companies formed ARAMCO: Standard Oil of California, Exxon, Mobil, and Texaco. In 1945, Roosevelt met with Ibn Saud aboard the USS Quincy in the Great Bitter Lake of the Suez Canal, to forge an important US-Saudi economic alliance. Roosevelt had acted on the advice of Harold Ickes, then Petroleum Coordinator for National Defense, and a State Department which in December 1942 had noted, “It is our strong belief that the development of Saudi Arabian petroleum resources should be viewed in the light of the broad national interest.”[3]

During World War II, the American government decided to “horn in,” as President Franklin D. Roosevelt put it, “on Saudi Arabian oil reserves.”[4] The American State Department described looked upon Saudi oil as “a stupendous source of strategic power, and one of the greatest material prizes in world history, …probably the richest economic prize in the world in the field of foreign investment.”[5] For strategic reasons, Harold Ickes, Roosevelt’s Secretary of the Interior and Petroleum Coordinator for National Defense saw Saudi oil as the solution to the coming dependence of the USA on foreign sources. “It is our strong belief,” recorded a US memorandum of December 1942, “that the development of Saudi Arabian petroleum resources should be viewed in the light of the broad national interest.”[6] In August 1945, a State Department officer said that: “a review of the diplomatic history of the past 35 years will show that petroleum has historically played a larger part in the external relations of the United States than any other commodity.”[7] In fact, James V. Forrestal, US Secretary of Defense 1947-49, said that unless the US had access to Saudi and other Arab oil, “American motorcar companies would have to design a four-cylinder car within the next five years.”[8]

In 1954, fearing that ARAMCO’s monopoly of Saudi oil might be broken, the US government coerced Ibn Saud into cancelling his large joint business venture with the Greek oil tycoon, Aristotle Onassis (1906 – 1975), to transport Saudi oil on his tankers. The US, which had just finished toppling the popular government of Mohammad Mosaddeq (1882 – 1967) in Iran because of his attempt nationalize the Iranian oil industry—which had been built by the British on Persian lands since 1913 through the Anglo-Persian Oil Company (APOC/AIOC), later known as British Petroleum (BP)—threatened Ibn Saud with a similar fate. US Secretary of State, John Foster Dulles, brother of CIA director Allen Dulles, warned that if Saud did not back down from his planned venture with Onassis, Washington “…would of course utilize every means to make him and his advisers realize what disastrous effect this would have on his position, his government, and his country.”[9] Saud immediately complied with the threat, cancelled the oil deal with Onassis.[10]

 

CIA

With the demise of the Nazis, control of the Muslim Brotherhood was taken over by the CIA. James Jesus Angleton had been part of a group known as the Georgetown Set, an influential group of journalists, politicians, and government officials whose lobbying efforts brought about the creation of the CIA. The early members of the Georgetown Set, also known as the Wisner Gang, was founded originally by six former OSS officers, Frank Wisner, Philip Graham who ran the Washington Post, David Bruce, Tom Braden, Stewart Alsop, and Walt Rostow. Over the next few years, others like Richard Bissell, the Tavistock Institute’s Walter Lippmann, the Bundy brothers, Chip Bohlen, George Kennan, Skull and Bones member Averill Harriman, John J. McCloy, Felix Frankfurter and Allen Dulles joined their regular parties. Frankfurter, who served as an Associate Justice of the United States Supreme Court, is reported to have received a copy of Eva Frank’s portrait from his mother, a practice maintained among Sabbateans as a symbol of their Sabbatean heritage. According to Frankfurter, “the real rulers in Washington are invisible and exercise their power from behind the scenes.”[11]

It was members of the Georgetown Set who began lobbying for a new intelligence agency. The main figure was OSS veteran Frank Wisner, who was appointed director of the Office of Special Projects, created in 1948 with the help George Kennan. Soon afterwards it was renamed the Office of Policy Coordination (OPC), which later became the espionage and counter-intelligence branch of the CIA, newly created in 1947. Under Wisner, the OPC launched what amounted to a psychological operations program to undermine the spread of communism, and to promote American imperialism through the spread of “democracy.” As one early officer of the CIA noted, about the agency’s sense of mission, “to save western freedom from Communist darkness,” it could be compared to “the atmosphere of an order of the Knights Templar.”[12]

In 1948, President Truman summoned Allen Dulles to be part of a working group tasked with making proposals on how the work of the fledgling CIA could be improved. The group’s efforts resulted in National Security Report 50 (NCS50), which for the most part reflected Dulles’s own vision: covert operations should be one of the CIA’s central functions, and Wisner’s OPC should be incorporated directly into the CIA.[13] In 1951, to better coordinate these efforts, Truman had also created the Psychological Strategy Board (PSB). The PSB was headed by another OSS veteran C.D. Jackson (1902 – 1964), the first Deputy Director of Central Intelligence at CIA. As detailed by Pulitzer Prize winning journalist Ian Johnson in A Mosque in Munich, as the Psychological Strategy Board, headed by C.D. Jackson, adopted a new program for the Middle East in early 1953, one of Eisenhower’s chief psychological warfare strategists, Edward P. Lilly, produced a memorandum called “The Religious Factor,” which called on the US to use religion more explicitly. Lilly described the great religious revival going on in the Muslim world, exemplified, he thought, by the Muslim Brotherhood.

While also dealing with ex-Nazis, the CIA was establishing relationships with the Zionist leadership in Israel. Israel’s declaration of independence in 1948 had been followed by the establishment of the Israel Defense Forces (IDF), and the process of absorbing all military organizations into the IDF started.[14] An agreement had been signed between Menachem Begin and Yisrael Galili for the absorption of the Irgun into the IDF.[15] June 1948, after consulting with Reuven Shiloah (1909 – 1959) and Chaim Herzog (1918 – 1997), David Ben-Gurion decided to create three intelligence organizations, which ended up being the three main entities in the Israeli Intelligence Community, along with Aman, the military intelligence arm that supplies information to the Israel Defense Forces (IDF); Shin Bet, responsible for internal intelligence, counter-terror and counter-espionage; and the Mossad, which deals with covert activities outside of Israel.

In May 1951, at the invitation of Jewish organizations, Ben-Gurion went on an unofficial trip to the United Sates. He used the opportunity for a secret meeting with General Walter Bedell Smith, then head of the CIA.[16] Until then, the Americans had rejected every Israeli offer to establish a covert liaison between the two countries, for fear that it would harm their ties with the Arab world. Another reason was the fear that Israel the kibbutzim that were established by immigrants from Eastern Europe were permeated Soviet agents. In the end, Bedell Smith agreed, on the condition that it would remain an absolute secret, which Ben-Gurion agreed to. Shortly afterwards, Shiloah was sent to Washington to draw up a formal U.S.-Israeli agreement on intelligence cooperation.[17] James Jesus Angleton was assigned to “the Israel desk” as liaison with Israel’s Mossad and Shin Bet agencies.[18] As Wolf Blitzer reported in the Washington Post:

 

Mr. Angleton, in fact, had a very dramatic impact on his counterparts in Israel in persuading them to take the necessary precautions to make certain that the Soviet Union could not penetrate the Israeli intelligence community He was always suspicious of Soviet operations, and is credited with being the first to recognize the dangers of the Soviet Union’s “disinformation” campaign to subvert the West. Israel learned much from him.[19]

 

When he became head of the CIA, Dulles hired the services of Reinhard Gehlen (1902 – 1979), the most senior eastern front Nazi military intelligence officer who, just before the end of World War II, had turned himself over to the US.[20] In exchange for his extensive intelligence contacts in the USSR, Dulles and the OSS reunited Gehlen with his Nazi associates, to establish “the Gehlen Organization,” which then functioned within the OSS, and later the CIA. Under the leadership of Allen Dulles, the CIA embarked on a project of hiring ex-Nazis in Egypt, who were led by Gehlen, Hjalmar Schacht and son-in-law Otto Skorzeny (1908 – 1975), Hitler’s “favorite commando.” Urged by Hjalmar Schacht, Skorzeny had Gestapo chief and right-hand man  to former Reichsleiter Martin Bormann (1900 – 1945), Heinrich Mueller, in Brazil send him a team of secret police specialists. Mueller’s team, known as the General Intelligence Service, was so effective that Colonel Muammar Gaddafi, then the new revolutionary leader of his country of Libya, asked Gamal Abdul Nasser (1918 – 1970) to make them available to him as well.[21] The Germans in Egypt began conspiring with Nasser and his Free Officers who, in turn, were working closely with the Muslim Brotherhood to overthrow the king. On July 23, 1952, the Free Officers carried out a coup d’état with assistance from the Brotherhood and the Nazis.[22] Kim was also the formal leader of Operation Ajax, organized by Wisner and Dulles for the overthrow of Iran’s democratically elected President Mossadegh in 1953, who threatened to nationalize England’s prized Anglo-Iranian Oil Company (AIOC). In the same year, Dulles and Wisner orchestrated the overthrow of the Socialist President Arbenz of Guatemala in 1954, an operation known as PBSUCCESS.[23]

In the beginning of 1954, John Foster Dulles hoped to resolve tensions in the Middle East, to support a far-reaching US plan to counter the Soviet Union. In the summer of 1954, State Department officials started to draft a detailed proposal for a peace plan between Egypt and Israel, referred to under the code name Operation Alpha. Facing opposition from both Egypt and Israel, President Eisenhower authorized the secret mission of a special envoy, Robert Anderson, a Texas lawyer and personal friend. From January to March 1956, Anderson engaged in CIA-supported negotiations with Ben-Gurion, Foreign Minister Moshe Sharett, and Egyptian President Gamal Nasser. However, the plan was categorically rejected by both Egypt and Israel.[24]

Although he believed that “US policy had to continue to be one of support of Israel,” John Foster Dulles, while he served as Secretary of State under Eisenhower, stated, in response to the pressure on the American administration not to impose sanctions on Israel after its refusal to evacuate Sharm el Sheikh and the Gaza Strip, was critical of the power of the American Zionists and their ability to pressure administrations to endorse pro-Israeli policy.[25] Although Dulles’ stated that he was not “anti-Jewish,” he nevertheless believed that Zionists had influence “around the world.”[26] As congressional calls against the sanctions mounted, Dulles expressed his frustration at how Jewish influence was “completely dominating the scene and almost impossible to get Congress to do anything they don’t approve of,” and he blamed the Israeli embassy for “practically dictating to the Congress, through influential Jewish people in the country.” This reached such a point where Dulles claimed Ben-Gurion “can control our government policies through the Jewish pressure here.”[27]

 

Religious Factor 

A meeting between the White House and the Muslim Brotherhood then took place in 1953. Said Ramadan (1926 – 1995), the Brotherhood’s leading figure and son-in-law to founder Hassan al Banna, was invited to attend a conference sponsored by the USIA, the State Department's International Information Agency (IIA), Princeton and the Library of Congress. The “hoped-for result,” wrote Washburn, deputy director of the U.S. Information Agency in charge of liaison with the White House, to C.D. Jackson, “is that the Muslims will be impressed with the moral and spiritual strength of America.”[28] As outlined in a confidential memo by John Foster Dulles, “on the surface, the conference looks like an exercise in pure learning. This in effect is the impression desired.” As he further explained, “IIA promoted the colloquium along these lines and has given it financial and other assistance because we consider that this psychological approach is an important contribution at this time to both short term and long term United States political objectives in the Moslem area.”[29]

That led the US government to reach out to US-Saudi oil conglomerate ARAMCO to underwrite the travel grants to the Princeton program. The US Embassy in Cairo invited Ramadan and he and other participants then traveled to Washington for a photo-op with President Eisenhower in the White House. The CIA subsequently conducted an analysis of Ramadan and concluded that “Ramadan seems to be a fascist, interested in… power. He did not display many ideas except for those of the Brotherhood.”[30] Despite this supposed skepticism, the Princeton colloquium nevertheless encouraged the Eisenhower Administration during his second term to provide support for the Muslim Brotherhood.[31]

Ramadan also had a pivotal role in Pakistan, where he moved in 1948, after the creation of Israel, in order to attend the World Muslim Congress held in Karachi, as the representative of the Muslim Brotherhood, following the creation of Pakistan in 1947. The Congress was founded at the 1949 World Muslim Conference, also in Karachi. The Congress traces its roots to the Meccan Congress hosted in 1926 hosted by Ibn Saud shortly after his conquest of Mecca and Medina. Al-Husseini, who had attended the congress, presided over the Conference, and was elected President. After the war, Al-Husseini came under French protection, and then sought refuge in Cairo. In the lead-up to the 1948 Palestine war, Husseini opposed both the 1947 UN Partition Plan and Jordan’s plan to annex the West Bank. Failing to gain command of the Arab League’s Arab Liberation Army, which fought on the Arab side in the 1948 Palestine war, Husseini built his own militia, the Holy War Army. During the 1948, which began on May 14, 1948, with the termination of the British Mandate and the declaration of the establishment of the State of Israel, the British withdrew, Zionist forces conquered territory and established the State of Israel, and over 700,000 Palestinians fled or were expelled. In September 1948, he participated in the establishment of an All-Palestine Government the govern the Egyptian-ruled Gaza, which won limited recognition.[32] In 1959, the All-Palestine nominal area was de jure merged into the United Arab Republic, coming under formal Egyptian military administration, who appointed Egyptian military administrators in Gaza.

The United Arab Republic was established in 1958 as the first step towards a larger pan-Arab state, originally being proposed to Egyptian President Gamal Abdul Nasser by a group of political and military leaders in Syria. In 1954, Said Ramadan was part of a plot to assassinate Nasser, coordinated by the CIA and former Nazis, like Skorzeny.[33] Johann von Leers (1902 – 1965), an Alter Kämpfer and an honorary Sturmbannführer in the Waffen-SS, worked with Skorzeny managing anti-Israeli propaganda in Egypt.[34] Von Leers was welcomed in Egypt by al-Husseini and he became the political adviser to the Information Department under Nasser.[35] According to Serge Klarsfeld, it was the banking contacts of Skorzeny’s close friend Francois Genoud that set in motion the ODESSA networks, which transferred millions of marks from Germany into Swiss banks.[36] Working for both Swiss and German intelligence agencies, Genoud traveled extensively in the Middle East. During World War II, he played an active role in negotiations between Allen Dulles, the head of the OSS, and Nazi SS agents looking to end the war.[37] Genoud is notable for being the executor of the last will and testament of Nazi propagandist Joseph Goebbels, and for reportedly making a fortune from publishing Goebbels’ diaries for which he held the posthumous rights along with Hitler’s and Bormann’s works. Nazi hunters such as Serge Klarsfeld and Simon Wiesenthal, journalist David Lee Preston and others have asserted that Genoud was no less than the principal financial manager of the hidden Swiss assets of the Third Reich after World War II.[38]

The relationship Nasser and the Muslim Brotherhood had already begun to fray after the 1949 assassination of Hassan al-Banna by government agents. When, its new leader Sayyed Qutb demanded imposition of the Sharia, Nasser resisted and became an assassination target himself. But, when Brotherhood involvement in the 1954 plot was discovered, four thousand of them were arrested, six were executed and thousands fled to Syria, Saudi Arabia, Jordan and Lebanon. Interrogations conducted by the Nasser government revealed that the Muslim Brotherhood continued to also function as a German Intelligence unit. As well, as divulged by former CIA agent Miles Copeland in The Game of Nations:

 

Nor was that all. Sound beatings of the Moslem Brotherhood organizers who had been arrested revealed that the organization had been thoroughly penetrated, at the top, by the British, American, French and Soviet intelligence services, any one of which could either make active use of it or blow it up, whichever best suited its purposes. Important lesson: fanaticism is no insurance against corruption; indeed, the two are highly compatible.[39]

 

Following the assassination attempt on Nasser, Said Ramadan and other Brotherhood conspirators were charged with treason and stripped of their Egyptian citizenship. Many members of the Muslim Brotherhood were shuttled to the CIA’s ally Saudi Arabia. Loftus discovered that the British Secret Service convinced American intelligence that the Muslim Brotherhood would be indispensable as “freedom fighters” in preparation for the next major war, which was anticipated against the Soviet Union. Kim Philby, Soviet double-agent and son of “Abdullah” Philby, assisted the US in recruiting members of the Muslim Brotherhood who, once they were brought to Saudi Arabia, says Loftus, “were given jobs as religion education instructors.”[40] Thus, beginning in the 1960s, with the CIA’s tacit approval, the Salafis became more formally allied to the Wahhabis who became the principal patrons of the Brotherhood, which set up branches in most Arab states.[41] Among them was Mohammed Qutb (1919 – 2014), the younger brother of Sayyed Qutb, who took refuge in Saudi Arabia along with other members of the Muslim Brotherhood. There he edited and published his brother’s books and taught as a professor of Islamic Studies at Saudi universities. While in Saudi Arabia, he conceived of the organization now known as the World Assembly of Muslim Youth (WAMY), thanks to large donations from the bin Laden family. Osama bin Laden’s brother Omar was at one time its executive director.

To counter Nasser and his Arab nationalism, socialist measures, leadership of the Arab world, close relations with the Soviet Union, and above all his popular call for Arab unity, the Americans and British instructed Ibn Saud’s son and successor, King Faisal (1906 – 1975), to use Islam as a political weapon. To that end, in 1962, Saudi Arabia sponsored an international Islamic conference in Mecca. At the conference, with CIA encouragement, the Saudis created the Muslim World League (WML), with its headquarters in Mecca, to work for “political solidarity,” that is, acceptance of Wahhabism by other Muslim communities.[42] An ultra-conservative right-wing Wahhabi organization, the WML declared at the conference that: “Those who disavow Islam and distort its call under the guise of nationalism are actually the most bitter enemies of the Arabs, whose glories are entwined with the glories of Islam.”[43] Ramadan co-founded the League with al-Husseini. In 1963, Ramadan gave King Saud the official proposal to found the League and was granted a diplomatic passport as its Ambassador-at-large.[44] According to the statute, the head of the League’s secretariat has always been a Saudi. Underwritten initially by several donors, including ARAMCO, then a CIA collaborator, the League established a powerful international presence with representatives in 120 countries. In addition to Ramadan, it included Brotherhood-connected Abul Ala Maududi (1903 – 1979) and a Wahhabi-influenced Indian scholar named Maulana Abu Hasan al Nadvi (1913 – 1999), a teacher in Darul Uloom Nadwat al-Ulama. Maududi was the founder of a party in Pakistan named Jamaat-e-Islami. Many of the party’s leaders, like Fareed Paracha, Munawar Hassan, Hafiz Hussain, Qazi Hussain were on the payroll of CIA.[45] Several of al-Hilali’s students from the Nadwat al-Ulama collaborated with Maududi and his Jamaat-i Islami, in India and Pakistan.[46]

Al-Husseini’s nephew, Yasser Arafat (1929 – 2004), founded Fatah, the largest faction of the confederated multi-party Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO), with members of the Muslim Brotherhood in 1954. Arafat was among several Palestinian refugees who received training in commando tactics for possible use against British troops stationed in the Suez Canal zone from Otto Skorzeny, who planned their initial strikes into Israel via the Gaza Strip in 1953-1954.[47] Despite his Nazi past and collaboration with enemies of Israel, Skorzeny was recruited by the Mossad from 1962.[48] The Mossad, like many other Western intelligence services, also maintained a long-standing relationship with the Muslim Brotherhood. According to Robert Dreyfuss, in Devil’s Game: How the United States Helped Unleash Fundamentalist Islam: “And beginning in 1967 through the late 1980s, Israel helped the Muslim Brotherhood establish itself in the occupied territories. It assisted Ahmed Yassin, the leader of the Brotherhood, in creating Hamas, betting that its Islamist character would weaken the PLO.”[49]

 

United Arab Republic  

Despite all efforts, Nasser’s power had continued to grow. There had been several attempts to bring about a pan-Arab state by many well-known Arab leaders, all of which ultimately failed. It was not until Nasser that Arab nationalism became a state policy and a means with which to define Egypt’s position in the Middle East and the world, particularly vis-à-vis Zionism in neighboring Israel. In 1957, in response to growing threats from Turkey, the Syrian government had invited him to establish a formal union with Egypt, resulting in the United Arab Republic (UAR), which came into being in 1958. Syria seceded from the union, following the 1961 Syrian coup d’état, that resulted in the break-up of the UAR and the restoration of an independent Syrian Republic. Egypt, though, for the time being, continued to be known officially as the UAR.

The Americans, therefore, took the chance to confront Nasser in a proxy war in Yemen. Yemeni officers led by Abdullah as-Sallal, a supporter of Nasser, rebelled against Imam al-Badr of the Kingdom of North Yemen in 1962, proclaiming their country the Yemen Arab Republic. Al-Badr began receiving support from King Faisal of Saudi Arabia to reinstate the kingdom, convincing Nasser to dispatch Egyptian troops to strengthen the new government. By 1963, Nasser had sent 15,000 Egyptian soldiers to Yemen, but the war remained a stalemate. Referring to the CIA’s exploitation of the Brotherhood in Yemen, former CIA covert operations specialist, John Baer, in Sleeping with the Devil: How Washington Sold Our Soul for Saudi Crude noted:

 

At the bottom of it all was this dirty little secret in Washington: The White House looked on the Brothers as a silent ally, a secret weapon against (what else?) communism. This covert action started in the 1050s with the Dulles brothers—Allen at the CIA and John Foster at the State Department—when they approved Saudi Arabia’s funding of Egypt’s Brothers against Nasser.

Like any other truly effective covert action, this one was strictly off the books. There was no CIA funding, no memorandum notification to Congress. Not a penny came out of the Treasury to fund it. In other words, no record. All the White House had to do was give a wink and a not to countries harboring the Muslim Brothers, like Saudi Arabia and Jordan.[50]

 

Being the only candidate for the position, with virtually all of his political opponents being forbidden by law from running for office, Nasser was again elected president in 1965. That same year, he imprisoned Sayyed Qutb. Unable to silence Qutb by incarceration, Nasser accused him of conspiring with the Saudis in attempts to assassinate him and had Qutb executed in 1966. The Muslim Brotherhood consequently sentenced Nasser to death. Nasser’s death in 1970, and the election of his successor Anwar Sadat (1918 – 1981) to the Egyptian presidency, resulted in a complete turn-around in the country’s policy towards the Americans. Sadat had been a close confidant of Nasser and a senior member of the Free Officers movement that led the Revolution of 1952. It was also in that year, reported Eric Margolis in the Toronto Star, that Sadat was recruited into the CIA.[51]

Sadat assisted in a dramatic rise of America’s influence in the Middle East. He purged the Egyptian government of Nasserists, expelled thousands of Soviet troops and established a covert relationship with Saudi Arabia’s chief of intelligence Kamal Adham, the CIA and Henry Kissinger. Guided by Adham, Sadat brought the Muslim Brotherhood back to Egypt who then worked extensively to spread their influence worldwide. In 1971, King Faisal of Saudi Arabia made an offer to René Guénon’s protégé, Abdel Halim Mahmoud, then rector of the University of Al Azhar, offering him one hundred million dollars to finance a new campaign in the Muslim world against communism and towards the triumph of Islam. As John Cooly remarked in Unholy Wars, “Neglecting the implications of such a triumph, the CIA, in close liaison with the Saudi Arabian intelligence services under billionaire businessman Kamal Adham, offered support.”[52]

 


[1] John Loftus & Mark Aarons. The secret war against the Jews: how western espionage betrayed the Jewish people (New York: St. Martin’s Griffin, 1994). p. 38.

[2] William Engdahl. A Century of War. Chapter 7, "Oil and the New World Order of Bretton Woods.”

[3] United States National Archive. “Memorandum of Alling to A.A. Berle and Secretary of State Dean Acheson.” December 14, 1942. 890F.24/20.

[4] Lacey. The Kingdom, p. 265.

[5] Cited in Noam Chomsky. Deterring Democracy (New York: Hill and Wang, 1991), p. 53

[6] Lacey. The Kingdom, p. 263.

[7] Cited in Howard Zinn. A People’s History of the United States (New York: Harper Perennial, 1990)

[8] Cited in Holden. The House of Saud, p. 144.

[9] Nicholas Fraser, et al. Aristotle Onassis (New York: Ballantine Books, 1977), p. 181

[10] Abdullah Mohammad Sindi. “The Direct Instruments of Western Control over the Arabs: The Shining Example of the House of Saud.” Retrieved from http://www.social-sciences-and-humanities.com/PDF/house_of_saud.pdf

[11] Barry Chamish. Shabtai Tzvi, Labor Zionism and the Holocaust (Modiin House), p. 292.

[12] William Colby. Honorable Men: My Life in the CIA (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1978); cited in Frances Stonor Saunders. Who Paid the Piper: The CIA and the Cultural Cold War (London: Granta Books, 2000), p. 33.

[13] Johnson. A Mosque in Munich, p. 41.

[14] Benny Morris. 1948: The First Arab-Israeli War (Yale University Press, New Haven, 2008), pp. 269–71.

[15] Ibid.

[16] Wolf Blitzer. “Mossad-CIA Ties Legacy of Casey and Angleton.” Wall Street Journal (May 22, 1987). Retrieved from https://www.cia.gov/readingroom/docs/CIA-RDP90-00965R000100540001-4.pdf

[17] Ephraim Kahana. “Mossad-CIA Cooperation.” International Journal of Intelligence and CounterIntelligence, 14:3 (2001), pp. 410.

[18] Yossi Melman. “History of CIA-Israel collaboration.” Haaretz (March 11, 2006). Retrieved from http://www.haaretz.com/hasen/spages/692298.html

[19] Wolf Blitzer. “Mossad-CIA Ties Legacy of Casey and Angleton.”

[20] Marc Erikson. “Islamism, fascism and terrorism” (Part 3), Asia Times, (4 December 2002).

[21] Manning. Martin Bormann, p. 212.

[22] Erikson. “Islamism, fascism and terrorism” (Part 3).

[23] Daniele Ganser. Nato’s Secret Armies: Operation Gladio and Terrorism in Western Europe (London: Routledge, 2005), p. 58

[24] “Operation Alpha.” Jewish Virtual Library. Retrieved from https://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/operation-alpha

[25] Meeting: Ben-Gurion and. Sharett Dulles and the U.S. Delegation, May 14, DFPI, 1953, Vol. 8, Doc. 211; ISA, 2309/13, USA Division to Israel Embassy, Washington DC., May 14, 316; 2414/28, Visit of Dulles and Stassen’s Delegation in Israel, May 18, 1953. Cited from David Tal. “US-Israel 1953-57 Revisited.” Israel Studies (November 2020). Retrieved from https://www.researchgate.net/publication/346498774_US-Israel_1953-57_Revisited

[26] FRUS, 1955–1957, Vol. XIV, Doc. 345, Memorandum of Discussion at the 262nd Meeting of the NSC, October 20, 1955. Cited from David Tal. “US-Israel 1953-57 Revisited.” Israel Studies (November 2020). Retrieved from https://www.researchgate.net/publication/346498774_US-Israel_1953-57_Revisited

[27] Call to Roswell Barnes, February 19, 1957. Cited from David Tal. “US-Israel 1953-57 Revisited.” Israel Studies (November 2020). Retrieved from https://www.researchgate.net/publication/346498774_US-Israel_1953-57_Revisited

[28] Ian Johnson. A Mosque in Munich, p. 116.

[29] Ibid., p. 117.

[30] Ibid., p. 118.

[31] Ibid., p. 118.

[32] Rex Brynen. Sanctuary and Survival: The PLO in Lebanon (Boulder, Colorado: Westview Press, 1990), p. 20.

[33] Marc Erikson. “Islamism, fascism and terrorism.” Part 3, Asia Times (December 4, 2002); Marc Erikson. “1942-1952, Egypt: Nasser’s Nazis and the CIA.” Asia Times (Issue # 51 May 2003).

[34] “FTR #721 A Mosque in Munich,” Dave Emory. Spitfire List (August 30, 2010). Accessed 1 october 2011.

[35] “Who’s who in Nazi Germany,” Robert Solomon Wistrich (Psychology Press, 2002). p. 152-153.

[36] Ibid.; Martin A. Lee & Kevin Coogan. “Killers on the Right: Inside Europe’s Fascist Underground.” Mother Jones (May 1987). pp.45-52.

[37] Stephen E. Atkins. Encyclopedia of Modern Worldwide Extremists and Extremist Groups (Westport, Connecticut: Greenwood Press, 2004), p. 102.

[38] David Lee Preston. “Hitler’s Swiss Connection,” Philadelphia Inquirer (May 1, 1997).

[39] The Game of Nations, (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1970), p. 184.

[40] “War Crimes Investigator Says Al Qaeda Spawned From Nazi Third Reich”. Retrieved from http://www.warriorsfortruth.com/al-queda-terrorists-Nazi-connection.html

[41] Martin A. Lee. “The CIA and The Muslim Brotherhood: How the CIA Set The Stage for September 11." Razor Magazine (2004).

[42] Ibid.

[43] Aburish. The Rise, Corruption and Coming Fall of the House of Saud, p. 130.

[44] Johnson. A Mosque in Munich, p. 182.

[45] “Jamaat-e-Islami’s True Colors.” News From North and South, (July 6, 2011). Retrieved from http://pioussluts.wordpress.com/2011/07/06/jamaat-e-islamis-true-colors

[46] Umar Ryad. Islamic Reformism and Christianity: A Critical Reading of the Works of Muhammad Rashid Rida (Leiden: Brill, 2009); cited in Lauzière. The Making of Salafism, p. 228.

[47] Glenn B. Infield. Skorzeny: Hitler’s Commando (New York: St. Martin's Press, 1981).

[48] Tom Segev. Simon Wiesenthal: The Life and Legends; Ian Black & Benny Morris. Israel’s Secret Wars: A History of Israel’s Intelligence Services (Schocken Books, 2012).

[49] Dreyfus. Devil’s Game, p. 191.

[50] Sleeping With the Devil (New York: Crown Publishers, 2003), p. 99.

[51] Jouhina News. “Canadian Newspaper: Anwar Sadat was ‘CIA Asset’… Egypt Now is a Cornerstone for the United States,” JP News. Retrieved from http://www.jpnews-sy.com/en/news.php?id=718

[52] John Cooley. Unholy Wars: Afghanistan, America and International Terrorism (London: Pluto Press, 2002), p. 30.

Divide & Conquer