12. The Mixed Multitude

Aryan Myth 

According to Voltaire, the Jews “stole” what was of worth in their religion from the Aryans, people whom they called Gog and Magog.[1] Occult legends place the home of the Aryan race in the mythical land of Shambhala, from Tibetan Buddhist legend, which was typically located in the region of the Altai, a mountain range in south-central Siberia, where Russia, China, Mongolia, and Kazakhstan come together. Curiously, the R1a1 haplogroup, which is distributed at high concentrations in the Balkans, including Macedonia, and particularly the Altai Mountains of Northern Mongolia, linking the mysterious heritage of Alexander with the supposed Lost Tribes of Israel and Gog and Magog—has a high level of concentration the Altai.[2] After European historians discovered a linguistic relationship between Sanskrit and German in the late nineteenth century, it was proposed that the people of India, Persia and Europe also shared a common racial heritage.

Leon Poliakov explained in The Aryan Myth: The History of Racist and Nationalistic, that the chief promoter of the myth of an Aryan race at the beginning of the nineteenth century was the German Indologist Friedrich Schlegel (1772 – 1829)—who was married to Dorothea, the daughter Moses Mendelssohn. The term Aryan, borrowed a little earlier from Herodotus by Anquetil du Peyron to designate the Persians and Medes, gained widespread usage due to Schlegel, justified by connecting the root Ari with the German word Ehre, or “honour.”[3] While not admitted openly, the theory of the Aryan race was inspired by the legends of the Kabbalah, positing them as perceived to have originated on the sunken continent of Atlantis, and following a Gnostic interpretation of the Bible, making them the offspring of the Sons of God, and ancestors of the “mixed multitude” (erev rav), mentioned in Exodus.[4] As such, Schlegel advanced a theory of Aryan origins that purported descent, typical to Gnosticism, from Cain, and which he connected to the “Mountain of the North” of an Indian flood legend found in the Rig-Veda, to be equated with Atlantis.[5] Schlegel then concluded:

 

Admitting, then, that these tribes were driven northwards, not from the mere impulse of necessity, but by an almost supernatural idea of the majesty and glory of those regions, and everywhere diffused throughout the Indian sagas, the path of the Teutonic race may clearly be traced from Turkind along the Gihon to the north shore of the Caspian Sean and the Caucasus.[6]

 

Most of the Illuminati philosophers, including Voltaire, Herder, Kant, Schlegel, Shelling and Hegel, as well as Schopenhauer, supported the notion of India as the cradle of civilization and spirituality. The bias was due, as Edgar Quinet (1803 – 1875) was to say state, to “a desire to discover in the ancient Orient a rival society to that of the Hebrew.”[7] As explained by Poliakov in The Aryan Myth, as European scholars began discovering the civilization of India, they recognized certain similarities Sanskrit and Greek, Latin, Celtic and Germanic languages. For convenience, these languages were referred to as Indo-German by most German authors, while other countries preferred the term Indo-European. Though initially asserted as merely a linguistic relationship, it was eventually theorized that, if there had once existed an “original” Indo-European language, there must also have been an “original” Indo-European race, identified by Schlegel as “Aryans.”

The hypothesis appeared in 1786 when English philologist Sir William Jones (1746 – 1794)—a member of the Royal Society and a prominent Freemason.[8]—first lectured on the striking similarities among three of the oldest languages known in his time: Latin, Greek, and Sanskrit, to which he tentatively added Gothic, Celtic, and Persian. In 1784, during the Company rule in India, Jones had founded the Asiatic Society to enhance and further the cause of “Oriental research.” In a lecture to the Asiatic Society in 1786, Jones stated:

 

The Sanscrit [sic] language, whatever be its antiquity, is of a wonderful structure; more perfect than the Greek, more copious than the Latin, and more exquisitely refined than either, yet bearing to both of them a stronger affinity, both in the roots of verbs and the forms of grammar, than could possibly have been produced by accident; so strong indeed, that no philologer could examine them all three, without believing them to have sprung from some common source, which, perhaps, no longer exists.[9]

 

Basing his observations primarily on Jesuit sources, Voltaire had already considered that all occult knowledge was ultimately of Indian origin: “…I am convinced that everything has come down to us from the banks of the Ganges, astronomy, astrology, metempsychosis, etc.…”[10] It was supposedly the Aryans who invented the original religion based on universal reason that was subsequently distorted by the Jews. In a late letter to Frederick the Great, Voltaire stated that Christianity was founded solely on the ancient religion of “Brama.”[11] The Encyclopedie of Diderot, in the article on India, suggested that the “sciences may be more ancient in India than in Egypt.”[12] Kant connected Abraham with Brahma, an etymology that had already been proposed by Guillaume Postel.[13] Kant placed the origin of mankind in Tibet, because “this is the highest country. No doubt it was inhabited before any other and could even have been the site of all creation and all science. The culture of the Indians, as is known almost certainly came from Tibet, just as all our arts like agriculture, numbers, the game of chess, etc., seem to have come from India.”[14] Goethe referred to the “noble and pure” wisdom of the Parsees as a means of escaping the “narrow circle of Hebraic-Rabbinic thought and of reaching the depth and amplitude of Sanskrit.”[15] But, explains Poliakov, it was Herder—a member of the Illuminati and friend of Moses Mendelssohn—“above all who introduced the passion for India into the Germanic lands and who prompted the imagination of the Romantics to seek affiliation with Mother India.”[16]

In 1779, Jean Sylvain Bailly (1736 – 1793, a member, along with Benjamin Franklin, of the Masonic lodge called Neuf Soeurs in Paris, in his Histoire de l’astronomie ancienne, based on astronomical calculations, concluded that Atlantis was Spitsbergen in the Arctic Ocean, from which originated a race of giants who migrated south to Mongolia and then the Caucasus and laid the foundations for all the ancient civilizations of Asia. In 1803, Bory de Saint-Vincent (1778 – 1846) published his Essais sur les iles fortunees et l’antique Atlantide, assumed that Atlantis was the original home of civilization, and when subjected to a cataclysm, its inhabitants were forced to conquer the known world in search of new territories.[17] Francis Wilford (1761 – 1822) equated the “Atala, the White Island,” mentioned in the Vishnu Purana, one of the oldest of the Hindu Puranas, with Atlantis.[18]

 

Salonnières

Many in Friedrich Schlegel’s circle were identified by the French imperial police as members of the Illuminati, based on anonymous work titled a Mémoire sur les Illuminés et l’Allemagne (“Memoirs about the Illuminati and Germany”), written around 1810.[19] According to the anonymous report, “These dreamers, referred to as Idealists, basically have the same goal as the Illuminati, with whom they have close ties,” and “They preach a moral and political regeneration that will ensure the independence of the German people and the reign of the Ideas.”[20] The list of Idealists included the two Schlegel brothers, Jean Paul, Clemens Brentano and Achim von Arnim, Fichte, Zacharias Werner, Tieck and Madame de Staël.[21]

Achim von Arnim (1781 – 1831) married Bettina, the Countess of Arnim, the sister of Clemens Brentano (1778 – 1842). Brentano studied in Halle and Jena, and was close to Christoph Martin Wieland, Herder, Goethe, Friedrich Schlegel, Fichte, and Ludwig Tieck (1773 – 1853). In Berlin in 1794, Tieck contributed a number of short stories to the series Straussfedern, published by Illuminati publisher Friedrich Nicolai and originally edited by Johann Karl August Musäus (1735 – 1787), who was insinuated into the Illuminati by Bode in 1783, was also a friend of Brentano.[22] Together with brother-in-law Brentano, Achim von Arnim visited Madame de Staël (1766 – 1817)  in Coppet, and Friedrich Schlegel and his wife Dorothea in Paris. Madame Germaine de Staël was the daughter of Illuminati member Jacques Necker and Suzanne Curchod, a leading salonnière. Madame de Staël’s intellectual collaboration with Benjamin Constant (1767 – 1830) between 1795 and 1811 made them one of the most celebrated intellectual couples of their time. Constant’s mentor was Jakob Mauvillon (1743 – 1794), a member of the Illuminati and a close friend of the Comte de Mirabeau. Madame de Staël held a salon in the Swedish embassy in Paris, frequented by Thomas Jefferson and Illuminatus Marquis de Condorcet.

Madame de Staël found mysticism “so attractive to the heart,” saying that it “united what was best in Catholicism and Protestantism” and that it was the form of religion that best suited, and served, a liberal political system.[23] She hosted  noted mystics such as  Madame  de  Krüdener, who exerted influence on the Moravian Church and Tsar Alexander I of Russia. Madame de Staël, who was to become her close friend, described von Krüdener as “the forerunner of a great religious epoch which is dawning for the human race.”[24] In a much-quoted letter, one friend commented to another about this circle: “these people will all be turning Catholic, Böhmians, Martinists, mystics, all thanks to Schlegel; and on top of all that, everything is turning German.”[25]  When Kant inquired with a friend about the truth of Swedenborg’s psychic abilities, he was told that “Professor Schlegel also had declared to him that it could by no means be doubted.”[26]

One of the daughters of Daniel Itzig, Bluemchen, married David Friedländer. Another of Itzig’s daughters, Franziska (Fanny) married the Austrian banker, Baron Nathan von Arnstein (1748 – 1838), another member of the Asiatic Brethren.[27] Fanny’s sister, Caecilie married Baron Bernhard von Eskeles (1753 – 1839), also a member of the Asiatic Brethren, who with Arnstein founded the Arnstein & Eskeles, one of the most prominent banking houses in Vienna. Fanny and Caecilie became leading salonnières, or “salon hostesses,” in Vienna, holding “large musical parties,” with Fanny entertaining celebrities such as Lord Nelson and Lady Hamilton, and at the Congress of Vienna in 1815 hosting the foremost statesmen of Europe, including Talleyrand, the Duke of Wellington, Viscount Castlereagh, and Karl August von Hardenberg (1750 – 1822).[28] Hardenberg, who served under Ferdinand Duke of Brunswick, and later become Chief Minister of Prussia, had been a founding member of the Masonic lodge Zur Wahrheit und Freundschaft (“Truth and Friendship”), with a patent from Prussian Grand lodge in Berlin, the Royal York of Friendship.[29] The Duke of Wellington had developed a close friendship with Madame de Staël, who had Lady Hamilton in mind when she composed Corinne, which Mendelssohn’s Dorothea translated into German.[30] As a young man, Arthur Schopenhauer (1788 – 1860) and his family had visited Fanny’s home.[31]

Dorothea met Friedrich Schlegel at the salon of first salonnière in Berlin was Henriette Herz (1764 – 1847), who had apparently shared tutors with Mendelssohn’s daughters.[32] At age fifteen, Herz married German-Jewish physician, seventeen years her senior, Markus Herz (1747 – 1803), who had studied with Kant and was also a friend and pupil of Mendelssohn, as well as acquainted with Lessing. Among her friends and acquaintances were Schiller, Wilhelm von Humboldt, Mirabeau, Fanny von Arnstein, and Madame de Genlis, the mother of the Louis Philippe II, Duke of Orleans, known as Philippe Égalité, a friend of Jacob Falk.[33] Through Dorothea and Henriette Mendelssohn, Henriette was introduced to another famous salonnière Rahel Varnhagen (1771 – 1833), with whom she would become intimately associated throughout her life. Her home became the meeting place for same personalities, including Schlegel, Schelling, Schleiermacher, Alexander and Wilhelm von Humboldt, Ludwig Tieck, Jean Paul, and Friedrich Gentz. Their salon gained influence through their friendship with Goethe.[34] Rahel is the subject of a famous biography, Rahel Varnhagen: The Life of a Jewess (1957), by Hannah Arendt.

Dorothea met Friedrich Schlegel at the salon of Henriette Herz, who with the assistance of Friedrich Schleiermacher (1768 – 1834) helped Dorothea secure a divorce from Simon Veit.[35] A disciple of Spinoza, Schleiermacher had been educated among the Moravian Church of Count Zinzendorf.[36] Schleiermacher’s grandfather was among the founders of the Zionites, created by members of the Philadelphian Society, who were inspired by Jacob Boehme.[37] Friedrich Schleiermacher’s sister Anna Maria Louise married Ernst Moritz Arndt (1769 – 1860), who along with Achim von Arnim, his brother-in-law Clemens Brentano, and other members of Madame de Staël’s Coppet Group, including the Schlegel brothers, was identified by the French imperial police as a member of the Illuminati.[38] With Achim von Arnim, Arndt was active in a club called the Gesetzlose Gesellschaft (“Lawless society”), many of whose members later joined the Deutsche Tischgesellschaft (“German Table Society”), an exclusive luncheon club founded in 1811 in Berlin, by Arnim and Clemens Brentano. The Tischgesellschaft was an invitation-only club for men, whose explicit guidelines, which excluded not only Jews, but even Jewish converts, caused a scandal in the Berlin of 1811. Though the Tischgesellschaft was a pointed attack on the Jewish salons, many of the members had been and even continued to be guests at Jewish homes. Schleiermacher was a member from the beginning and remained Henriette Herz’s close friend. And for years after 1811, Henriette’s friend Rahel Varnhagen maintained a stormy friendship with Brentano.[39] Arndt invited Herz to his home in 1819, a few months after the hepp hepp riots which had erupted in at least thirty German towns, opposition to local emancipation efforts. At the time, Arndt’s writings were blamed as an impetus for the riots. In fact, Rahel Varnhagen, in a famous letter to her brother Ludwig Robert (1778 – 1832), actually named Arndt as one of the causes of the pogrom.[40]

 

Tugendbund 

As explained by Alfred Rosenberg, the chief ideologue of the Nazi Party, “We see the old German nationalism after its grand flaming up in the Wars of Liberation (1813), after its deepest foundation by Fichte, after its explosive rise through Stein and Arndt… the unqualified greatness of those men who in 1813 again led Germany from the abyss to the heights.”[41] The origins of Pan-Germanism began with the birth of Romantic nationalism during the Napoleonic Wars, whose early proponents were two members of the Tugendbund, Father Jahn (1778 – 1852) and Arndt, who was influenced by Fichte and who was a close friend of the Jewish salonnière Henriette Herz, whose friends and acquaintances were Schiller, Wilhelm von Humboldt, Mirabeau, Fanny von Arnstein, and Madame de Genlis [42] The Tugendbund (“League of Virtue”) was a society formed in the spring of 1808, by a number of Freemasons, as a response of Prussia’s devastating defeat in the war with France and the oppressive Peace of Tilsit, and which became the germ of the Prussian reforms, which paved the way for the unification of Germany. As noted by Michael A. Meyer, The Origins of the Modern Jew, the word Tugend (“virtue”), a prominent a value of the Enlightenment, became the core of Moses Mendelssohn’s religious philosophy, believing it could help counter the negative stereotypes of the Jews.[43]  An earlier society, also named Tugendbund, had been founded in 1786, by Moses Mendelssohn’s daughter Dorothea Schlegel, Wilhelm and Alexander von Humboldt and Henriette Herz.[44]

Father Jahn laid the foundations for the German nationalism that involved into Nazism, through his membership in the Burschenschaft fraternity system in Jena and the Tugendbund (“League of Virtue”), that emerged following the humiliating Prussian defeat by Napoleon at the Battle of Jena–Auerstedt in 1806. As reveled by René le Forestier, in his classic, Les Illuminés de Bavière et la franc-maçonnerie allemande (“The Illuminati of Bavaria and German Freemasonry”), the French imperial police became concerned at the rise of a number of patriotic societies, like the Tugendbund, which they believed were the result of the on-going conspiratorial workings of the Illuminati. Vincent Lombard de Langres (1765 – 1830), in an anonymous work published in 1819, titled Des Societés Secrètes en Allemagne et dans d’autres contrées, de la Secte des Illuminés, du Tribunal Secret, de l’assassinat de Kotzebue (“Secret Societies in Germany and elsewhere, of the Illuminati Sect, the Secret Tribunal, the Kotzebue assassination”) denounced the Burschenschaft fraternity movement, which grew out of the Tugendbund, as an arm of the Illuminati conspiracy.[45]

The Tugendbund was headed by Baron vom Stein (1757 – 1831), a Prussian statesman who introduced the Prussian reforms, which paved the way for the unification of Germany, and who according to the French imperial police, was a member of the Illuminati.[46] According to Thomas Frost, in The Secret Societies of the European Revolution (1876), Stein “conceived the idea of spreading over Germany a network of secret societies, by the agency of which the people should be prepared for a struggle, when the time should seem opportune, for the liberation of the Fatherland.”[47] The Tugendbund soon numbered in its ranks most of the Councillors of State, many officers of the army, and a considerable number of the professors of literature and science. William I, Elector of Hesse, the brother of Illuminatus and Grand Master of the Asiatic Brethren, Prince Charles of Hesse-Kassel, and who hired Mayer Amschel Rothschild as his banker, was a member.[48] As explained by Count Egon Caesar Corti in The Rise of the House of Rothschild:

 

Its membership was so wide that it also included Jews, and the Rothschilds appear to have become members. At any rate, they acted as go-betweens for the Elector’s correspondence on this matter, and made payments in favour of the Tugendbund.[49]

 

During Napoleon’s rule over Germany, Arnim and Brentano had published the most famous German folksong collection Des Knaben Wunderhorn (“The Boys Magic Horn”). Baron vom Stein commended the book for its important role in arousing Volk patriotism to overthrow the French.[50] Father Jahn, who in his day was considered a liberal revolutionary, lent support to Stein’s reforms. Baron vom Stein, who aimed at transforming and modernizing Prussia, approached poets, writers and scholars to recruit them to support the reform movement by means of public propaganda.[51] Participating in this endeavor to create a “national myth” were, among others, Fichte, Friedrich Schleiermacher, Father Jahn and the well-known Berlin publisher Heinrich von Kleist (1777 – 1811), whose patriotic stage dramas, along with Fichte’s 1808 “Addresses to the German Nation,” and Arndt’s war poetry, were all instrumental in shaping German nationalism.[52]

 


[1] Voltaire. Oeuvres complètes (Paris: Garnier Frères, 1885), pp. 29.471; cited in Dorothy M. Figueira. Aryans, Jews, Brahmins: Theorizing Authority Through Myths of Identity (State University of New York Press, 2002) p. 17.

[2] “Ancient DNA provides new insights into the history of south Siberian Kurgan people.”

[3] Leon Poliakov. The Aryan Myth: A History of Racist and Nationalist Ideas in Europe (New York: Basic Books, 1987).

[4] Maciejko. The Mixed Multitude (translated by DeepL), p. 3.

[5] Ignatius Donnelly. Atlantis, the Antediluvian World (1882).

[6] Friedrich Schlegel. “Language and Wisdom of the Indians.” The aesthetic and miscellaneous works of Friedrich von Schlegel (London, Bell, 1900), p. 514.

[7] Poliakov. The Aryan Myth, p. 185.

[8] Dr Rosie Llewellyn-Jones (ed.). Chowkidar. British Association for Cemeteries in South Asia (BACSA). 15: 2 (Autumn 2018)

[9] William Jones (2 February 1786). “The Third Anniversary Discourse.” Electronic Library of Historiography. Universita degli Studi Firenze, taken from: Shore (Lord Teignmouth), John (1807). The Works of Sir William Jones. With a Life of the Author. Vol. III. John Stockdale and John Walker. pp. 24–46.

[10] Figueira. Aryans, Jews, Brahmins, p. 11; Poliakov. The Aryan Myth, p. 185.

[11] Ibid., p. 18.

[12] Poliakov. The Aryan Myth, p. 185.

[13] Ibid., p. 186.

[14] Ibid., p. 184.

[15] Ibid., p. 195.

[16] Ibid., p. 186.

[17] de Camp. Lost Continents, p. 81.

[18] Francis Wilford. Journal of Asiatic Researches, Vol. VIII (Calcutta, 1808).

[19] le Forestier. Les Illuminés de Bavière et la franc-maçonnerie allemande, pp. 707–709.

[20] Leopold Engel. Geschichte des Illuminaten-Ordens (Berlin: Hugo Bermühler Verlag, 1906), pp. 447–461 (trans. DeepL). Retrieved from https://de.wikisource.org/wiki/Geschichte_des_Illuminaten-Ordens/Der_Fortbestand_des_Ordens_und_die_Furcht_vor_ihm

[21] le Forestier. Les Illuminés de Bavière et la franc-maçonnerie allemande, pp. 707–709.

[22] Melanson. Perfectibilists.

[23] Helena Rosenblatt. “The Liberal Mysticism of Madame de Staël,” in Keith Baker & Jenna Gibbs (eds.), Life Forms in the Thinking of the Long Eighteenth Century (University of Toronto Press, 2016).

[24] “Krüdener, Julie de (1764–1824).” Women in World History: A Biographical Encyclopedia (Encyclopedia.com) Retrieved from https://www.encyclopedia.com/women/encyclopedias-almanacs-transcripts-and-maps/krudener-julie-de-1764-1824

[25] Karl Viktor von Bonstetten to Friederike Brun (October 12, 1809; cited in  Roger Paulin). “The Life of August Wilhelm Schlegel” (Cambridge: Open Book Publishers, 2016). Retrieved from https://books.openedition.org/obp/2957?lang=en#ftn354

[26] Signe Toksvig. Emanuel Swedenborg: Scientist & Mystic (West Chester, Pennsylvania: Swedenborg Foundation Press), p. 185.

[27] McIntosh. Rose Cross and the Age of Reason, p. 166.

[28] Michael K. Silber. “The Making of Habsburg Jewry in the Long Eighteenth Century.” In Jonathan Karp & Adam Sutcliffe (eds.). The Cambridge History of Judaism. Volume 7: The Early Modern World, 1500–1815 (Cambridge University Press, 2017), p. 782.

[29] Fronmüllerchronik (1871), p. 179.

[30] John Isbell. “Introduction,” Germaine De Stael, Corinne, or, Italy, trans. Sylvia Raphael (Oxford: Worlds Classics, 1998), p. ix.

[31] Hilde Spiel. Fanny von Arnstein: Daughter of the Enlightenment (trans.) Christine Shuttleworth (New York: New Vessel Press, 2013), p. 191

[32] Meyer. The Origins of the Modern Jew, p. 93.

[33] Barbara Hahn. “Henriette Herz.” Jewish Women’s Archive. Retrieved from https://jwa.org/encyclopedia/article/herz-henriette

[34] Ibid., p. 85.

[35] Meyer. The Origins of the Modern Jew, p. 93.

[36] Thomas Erne. “Friedrich Schleiermacher und Felix Mendelssohn-Bartholdy – religiöse Bindung und freies Spiel.” Evangelischen Kirche Berlin-Brandenburg-schlesische Oberlausitz (November 2020). Retrieved from https://www.ekbo.de/index.php?id=16959

[37] Charles Herbermann (ed.). “Zionites.” Catholic Encyclopedia (New York: Robert Appleton Company). Retrieved from http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/15761a.htm

[38] le Forestier. Les Illuminés de Bavière et la franc-maçonnerie allemande, p. 709.

[39] Deborah Hertz. “Henriette Herz as Jew, Henriette Herz as Christian: Relationships, Conversion, Antisemitism.” In Hannah Lund, Ulrike Schneider and Ulrike Wels (ed.) Die Kommunikations-, Wissens- und Handlungsgräume der Henriette Herz. Schriften des Frühneuzeitlichen Potsdams, vol. 5. (Göttingen: Vandenhoeck und Ruprecht, 2017), p. 118.

[40] Ibid., p. 138.

[41] Alfred Rosenberg. Mythus, 142d ed., (Munich, 1938), pp. 539–41.

[42] Deborah Hertz. “Henriette Herz as Jew, Henriette Herz as Christian: Relationships, Conversion, Antisemitism.” In Hannah Lund, Ulrike Schneider and Ulrike Wels (ed.) Die Kommunikations-, Wissens- und Handlungsgräume der Henriette Herz. Schriften des Frühneuzeitlichen Potsdams, vol. 5. (Göttingen: Vandenhoeck und Ruprecht, 2017), p. 118.

[43] Meyer. The Origins of the Modern Jew, pp. 26–27.

[44] “Henriette Herz.” Jewish Virtual Library. Retrieved from https://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/herz-henriette

[45] le Forestier. Les Illuminés de Bavière et la franc-maçonnerie allemande, p. 693.

[46] Ibid., p. 709.

[47] Thomas Frost. The Secret Societies of the European Revolution, Vol. 1 (London: Tinsley Brothers, 1876), p. 182.

[48] Ibid., p. 205.

[49] Count Egon Caesar Corti. The Rise of the House of Rothschild (London: Victor Gollancz Ltd, 1928), p. 81.

[50] Peter Viereck. Metapolitics: From Wagner and the German Romantics to Hitler (Routledge, 2017).

[51] Otto W. Johnston. Der deutsche Nationalmythos: Ursprung eines politischen Programms (Stuttgart: Metzler, 1990); cited in Daniel Tröhler. “Shaping the National Body: Physical Education and the Transformation of German Nationalism in the Long Nineteenth Century.” Nordic Journal of Educational History, 4: 2 (2017), p. 32.

[52] Tröhler. “Shaping the National Body,” p. 32.

Divide & Conquer